mind and body. He argued that all human souls
were immortal and thus not subject to a bodily
resurrection. In his discussion of metaphysics, he
attempted to show that all beings had their origin
in what he called the Necessary Existent, the first
cause, or God. Ibn Sina’s God represented the
highest beauty, lacking any defect; he was both
the essential lover and the beloved. Inspired by
Neoplatonism, Ibn Sina supported the idea that
the rest of creation flowed from God in waves,
or emanations. Such ideas were highly offensive
to literally minded Muslims. He developed these
ideas further in a group of writings concerned
with mysticism and “Oriental Wisdom.” Ibn Sina
also wrote an encyclopedic book on the healing
arts titled The Canon of Medicine (Al-Qanun fi
al-tibb), which drew extensively on Greek and
Arab medical literature and even some of his own
personal experience. It included his recommenda-
tions on caring for infants, raising children, and
edUcation.
Ibn Sina’s genius inspired and challenged phi-
losophers, men of religion, mystics, physicians,
and scientists in the Middle East and Europe for
centuries after his death. In Islamicate lands, these
included luminaries such as al-ghazali (d. 1111),
ibn rUshd (d. 1198), ibn al-arabi (d. 1240), Abu
Hafs al-Suhrawardi (d. 1294), and mUlla sadra
(d. 1640). Latin translations of The Book of Heal-
ing and The Canon of Medicine were read in Euro-
pean universities as early as the 12th century and
were studied there for centuries. The Catholic
theologian Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274), like his
counterparts in the east, also benefited from Ibn
Sina’s learning while arguing against some of his
ideas about God, the soul, and creation. Even
today Ibn Sina’s work is being read in many cen-
ters of learning around the world. In 1979–80, the
1,000-year anniversary of his birth was celebrated
in many countries. Hospitals in the Middle East
and South Asia bear his name, including one in
Baghdad. Iranians regard him as a national hero.
The United Nations Educational and Social Orga-
nization (UNESCO) established a prize for groups
and individuals in the fields of ethics and science
in his honor in 2004.Further reading: William Gohlman, The Life of Ibn Sina:
A Critical Edition and Annotated Translation (Albany:
State University of New York Press, 1974); Dimitri
Gutas, Avicenna and the Aristotelian Tradition: Introduc-
tion to Reading Avicenna’s Philosophical Works (Leiden:
E.J. Brill, 1988); Shams Inati, “Ibn Sina.” In History
of Islamic Philosophy, edited by Seyyed Hossein Nasr
and Oliver Leaman, 231–246 (London: Routledge,
1996); David Tschanz, “The Arab Roots of European
Medicine.” Saudi Aramco World 48 (May/June 1997):
20–31.Ibn Taymiyya, Taqi al-Din Ahmad (Ibn
Taymiya, Ibn Taimiya) (1263–1328)
prominent Hanbali jurist and theologian who inspired
Islamic revivalist movements, especially Wahhabism
Ibn Taymiyya was born in the ancient city of
Harran in what is now southeastern tUrkey. He
came from a family of scholars affiliated with the
hanbali legal school. When he was only six
years old, his family fled to damascUs in order
to escape the Mongols who had invaded the
Middle East from Central Asia, plundering cities
and killing many in their path. He obtained his
edUcation at a Hanbali madrasa directed by his
father.
At the age of 21, Ibn Taymiyya succeeded his
father as director and began to teach and write
books. In his work, he advocated a literal inter-
pretation of the qUran and hadith and called on
Muslims to follow the example set by the com-
panions oF the prophet, the salaf. He condemned
many of the teachings of Muslim philosophers,
theologians, and Shiis. He was also outraged by
popular belief in saints and visiting saints’ tombs.
Arguing that this was not condoned by the early
Muslim community, he ruled that it was bidaa
(unorthodox innovation) and therefore forbid-
den. He did not reject Sufi piety and asceticism,
however, as long as God remained the focus ofIbn Taymiyya, Taqi al-Din Ahmad 339 J