movements; shamil; terrorism; Wahhabism; West
aFrica.
Caleb ElfenbeinFurther reading: Fawaz A. Gerges, Journey of the Jihad-
ist: Inside Muslim Militancy (Orlando, Fla.: Harcourt,
2006); Gilles Kepel, Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2002);
Ahmed Rashid, Jihad: The Rise of Militant Islam in Cen-
tral Asia (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press,
2002); William R. Roff, “Islamic Movements: One or
Many?” In Islam and the Political Economy of Meaning:
Comparative Studies of Muslim Discourse edited by Wil-
liam R. Roff, 31–52 (London: Croom Helm, and Berke-
ley: University of California Press, 1987).
Jinnah, Muhammad Ali (“the greatest
leader”: Qaid-i Azam, Quaid-i Azam)
(1876–1948) leading Muslim politician in
prepartition India and first governor-general
of Pakistan
Muhammad Ali Jinnah was born in Karachi
(now in Pakistan) to a successful Ismaili Khoja
family from Gujarat. In his youth, he attended a
Muslim school, but he obtained his high school
edUcation from a Christian missionary school
in Karachi. At the age of 17, instead of attending
the University of Bombay, Jinnah was sent by his
family to London to work as an apprentice in an
international trading firm that did business with
his father, Jinnahbhai (d. 1901). He never com-
pleted his apprenticeship but was drawn to study
law at Lincoln’s Inn instead. At the age of 19, he
became the youngest Indian ever to be admitted to
the English bar. He also took an interest in British
politics, attending sessions of the House of Com-
mons during his sojourn in London and helping
an Indian politician become the first member
from that country to be elected to this legislative
body. In 1896, he was obliged to return to india
because his father’s business had failed.
The Jinnah who came back to India had
become Anglicized—his austere demeanor, dress,
and personal habits were more English than
Gujarati. He earned a good reputation as a civil
attorney in Bombay (now known as Mumbai), one
of India’s most important ports and commercial
centers. He became caught up in the nationalist
movement that was seeking to win a greater role
for Indians in the British colonial government as
well as a greater share of the civil service jobs.
The most important body of nationalists was the
Indian National Congress (INC), which had been
established in Bombay in 1885, and Jinnah became
an active member starting in 1906. As the Indian
nationalist movement shifted to seeking actual
independence from British rule, Muslim elites in
northern India became increasingly concerned
about their eventual minority status in a nation
that would be dominated by a Hindu majority,Muhammad Ali Jinnah with his sister Fatime on his 72nd
birthday (1947), Karachi, Pakistan (Corbis/Bettmann)K 400 Jinnah, Muhammad Ali