20th century. The Indonesian identity of some
members of the community is visible in specific
practices that are linked to those in Indonesia,
such as the orientation of their mosques facing
west instead of east, following the practice of
mosques in Indonesia, an issue that has created
some controversy among Muslims in Suriname.
See also canada; colonialism; daa wa; United
states.
Maria del Mar LogronoFurther reading: Hisham Aidi, “Let Us Be Moors: Islam,
Race and ‘Connected Histories.’ ” Middle East Report
229 (Winter 2003): 42–53; S. A. H. Ahsani, “Muslims
in Latin America: A Survey, Part I.” Journal of the Insti-
tute for Muslim Minority Affairs 5 (1984): 454–463;
Omar Hasan Kasule, “Muslims in Latin America: A
Survey, Part II.” Journal of the Institute for Muslim
Minority Affairs 5 (1984): 464–467; Ali Kettani, Muslim
Minorities in the World Today (New York: Institute of
Muslim Minority Affairs, 1986); Ignacio Klitch and Jef-
frey Lesser, “Introduction: Turko Immigrants in Latin
America.” The Americas 53 (July 1996): 1–14; Larry
Luxner, “Muslims in the Caribbean.” Saudi Aramco
World (November–December 1987): 2–11.
law See fiqh; sharia.
law, international
In the 20th century the ways in which separate
communities interact changed radically. Central to
this change has been the growth and development
of the modern nation-state, a process that began
in 17th-century Europe with the Treaty of West-
phalia (1648) and that reached its apex in the late
20th century. During the intervening centuries,
the modern state replaced other kinds of political
organization. Importantly, the development of the
modern state coincided with the decline of explic-
itly religious authority in Europe and the rise of
secular authority and the rule of law, giving rise
to what is now called the modern state: an entity
with fixed geographical borders and a government
acting as the ultimate authority within that terri-
tory. As the modern state became the template for
the entire world in the 20th century, a new body
or regime of law was created to systematize the
chaotic interactions among those states.
The modern system of international law rests
on the authority of a series of international orga-
nizations, each having their origins in the creation
of the United Nations (UN) in the wake of World
War II (1945). Prior to the emergence of modern
international law, interaction among political enti-
ties often took place on an ad hoc basis. Today, the
UN, the World Trade Organization, the Interna-
tional Monetary Fund, and the World Bank over-
see a system of law regulating economic, military,
and diplomatic relations among states. In theory,
international law is based on the equality of all
states before the law. Each state must be inde-
pendent—capable of making decisions free from
external coercion—in order for international law
to be effective and truly universal. The develop-
ment of international law, however, raises serious
questions about whether or not this is possible.
In this regard, there are three main points to
keep in mind. First, the modern state developed
in a particular setting—17th-century Europe—
and its spread to other settings upset religious and
political relationships and modes of organization
in those areas. Second, the spread of the modern
state often occurred through colonial relation-
ships between European and non-European sub-
jects. The construction of a free, stable, and truly
independent state in this context has proved a
difficult task, particularly given the tremendous
dislocation of populations that accompanied the
process. Finally, the idea of international law
developed out of Anglo-American and European
experiences in the wake of World Wars I and
II, and addressed those parties’ concerns. Many
states that existed at the time and the many that
have formed since the close of World War II were
excluded from the negotiations that created the
system of modern international law.K (^440) law