overwhelmingly Chinese. Most of the Indians
are Hindus from southern india. Christianity has
made an impact primarily among the non-Malay
half of the population, and now claims about 9
percent of the population.
From the first century c.e., Malaysia experi-
enced migrations from both China and India and
it became the home of kingdoms with Hindu and
Buddhist roots. In the 15th century, following the
opening of the port of Malacca on the peninsula’s
west coast, the first conversions to Islam were
reported. Through the next century, Islam gradu-
ally replaced Buddhism as the dominant faith on
the peninsula, and a set of states was established,
each headed by a sultan. Islam’s initial converts
included some among the aristocratic class on the
peninsula. It spread among this class over several
centuries, often through marriage alliances.
Beginning in the 16th century, a variety of
European colonial powers moved into the region.
In 1511 the Portuguese seized Malacca. In the
next century, the Dutch, in alliance with the sul-
tan of Jahor, drove the Portuguese out. At the end
of the 18th century, the British established their
trading colony on the northern shore of Borneo
and, in 1819, purchased Singapore from the sultan
of Jahore, which they managed as an outpost to
secure passage through the Straits of Malacca and
the Singapore Straits. Shortly thereafter the British
concluded a treaty with the Dutch guaranteeing
the latter’s hegemony in the East Indies (now
indonesia).
Through the 19th century the British con-
trolled the ports of Penang, Malacca, and Singa-
pore into which they encouraged immigration
from China and India to provide cheap labor for
the tin mines and rubber plantations. Beginning
in 1870 the British encouraged the formation of
protectorates over the several sultanates on the
Malaysian Peninsula and later in the northern
half of Borneo (including Brunei). British rule
was not welcomed by many Malays, including
Muslim religious leaders who regarded the Brit-
ish as kafirs (disbelievers). The Japanese invaded
and occupied the region during World War II.
After the war continuation of British colonial rule
became increasingly untenable, which led to inde-
pendence in stages through the 1950s and 1960s.
With independence in 1957, Islam was named
the state religion. The National Mosque (Masjid
Negara), completed in 1965, serves as a symbol of
Islam, the country’s dominant faith.
Malaysia is a constitutional monarchy consist-
ing of 13 states and one federal territory. Each state
has a parliament and a chief minister. The chief
ministers of nine of the states are hereditary rul-
ers known as sultans who also oversee the Islamic
affairs of their respective states. Every five years
there is an election and one of them is selected as
monarch. There are four states (Penang, Malacca,
Sabah, and Sarawak) that are governed by chief
ministers appointed by the government. There is
also a national parliament elected by the people
with the prime minister the highest elected offi-
cial. Sarawak and Sabah have no designated head
of Islam, but the king oversees the religious affairs
of Penang and Malacca.
In 1965 a council for Islamic affairs was cre-
ated. Operating out of the prime minister’s office, it
coordinates the efforts of the state councils, which
advise the sultan on religious matters. The state
and national legislatures have some power in legis-
lating for the Muslim community. The constitution
of Malaysia contains a provision affirming freedom
of religion. At the same time, Islam is the official
state religion. The practice of forms of Islam other
than Sunni Islam is restricted significantly. Hari
Raya Puasa (the end of the fasting season of rama-
dan), Hari Raya Qurban (the Feast of the Sacrifice
at the end of the haJJ pilgrimage), and the Prophet
Muhammad’s birthday (mawlid) have been desig-
nated official national holidays. The issue of Mus-
lims wishing to convert to another faith, primarily
Buddhism or Christianity, has been a sensitive one
in Malaysia. Ethnic Malays must overcome partic-
ularly difficult obstacles to leave the Islamic faith
for another religion. In 2001 a High Court judge
ruled that the constitution defined an ethnic MalayK 452 Malaysia