these cities have been supplanted in importance
by the Atlantic cities of Rabat and Casablanca,
Morocco’s modern capital and its major industrial
center. Traditionally, Morocco’s economy has been
derived from agriculture, mineral wealth (phos-
phates, iron ore, manganese), and participation in
the historical trans-Saharan caravan trade.
In ancient times, Morocco was loosely con-
nected with the Roman Empire, but the area was
conquered by the Arabs in the late seventh century.
Morocco’s indigenous peoples, the berbers, fought
to maintain their autonomy, but they eventually
adopted Islam. Early Moroccan dynasties ruled
over the Western Sahara (the almoravid dynasty,
1042–1147), central North Africa (the almohad
dynasty, 1123–1269), or Islamic Spain (anda-
lUsia, both dynasties), and were led by Berber
families who legitimized their reign through arab
Islamic culture. Under Merinid rule (1248–1465),
Fez became one of the glorious cities of Islam
and a renowned center of learning. During the
16th century, political leadership passed to shari-
fian dynasties claiming descent from the prophet
Muhammad (the Saadis, 1511–1659, and the
Alawis, 1664–present). Under increasing pressure
from Western powers, Morocco became a French
protectorate in 1912, although the Alawi sultan
was allowed to maintain his position under French
control. Morocco achieved independence in 1956,
after a long anticolonial struggle. The current
king, Muhammad VI, rules over a constitutional
monarchy that shares some limited power with a
bicameral legislature, elected by the public.
The official language of Morocco is Arabic,
although French is widely spoken, as are several
Berber languages (Tamazight, Tachelhit, and Tari-
fit). The population is 99 percent Sunni Muslim,
with a small number of Christians (mostly foreign)
and Jews. Sufi movements have exerted extensive
influence, with the largest orders being the Tijani-
yya, Shadiliyya, and the Qadariyya. Tombs of Sufi
saints, located throughout the country, represent
pilgrimage sites and centers for annual festivals.
The sharifian cult is based in the northern cities
of Fez and Mulay Idris, the latter named after the
founder of Morocco’s first Islamic dynasty. Moroc-
can Islam has traditionally followed Maliki reli-
gious law. art, architectUre, mUsic, and culture
combine Berber, Arab, and Andalusian themes,
although the influence of European styles has
become much more visible in recent years.
See also colonialism; maliki legal school.
Stephen CoryFurther reading: Rahma Bourqia and Susan Miller, eds.,
In the Shadow of the Sultan: Culture, Power and Politics
in Morocco (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University
Press, 1999); Abdellah Hammondi, Master and Disciple:
The Cultural Foundations of Moroccan Authoritarianism
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997); James
Miller and Jerome Bookin-Weiner, Morocco: The Arab
West (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1998); C. R.
Pennell, Morocco since 1830: A History (New York: New
York University Press, 2001).Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF)
This is one of several Muslim groups organized in
the late 1960s in the philippines after a massacre
of Muslim military recruits and later attacks on
Muslim communities committed by paramilitary
groups called ilaga from 1970 to 1972. The MNLF
was chaired by Nur Misuari with Abulkhayr
Alonto as the vice chair. The MNLF trained and
armed its soldiers in Sabah, malaysia, with the
strategic and financial help of members of the
traditional Moro elite. Immediately following
President Ferdinand Marcos’s declaration of mar-
tial law in September 1972, the MNLF launched
its first military offensive against the armed forces
of the Philippines and thereafter seized terri-
tory in Mindanao and Sulu where they created
revolutionary governing committees replacing
the functions of the Manila government’s political
apparatus. The MNLF demanded secession from
the Philippines in favor of an independent Moro
state in Mindanao, Sulu, and Palawan. Seeing
itself as the legitimate representative of the MoroMoro National Liberation Front 481 J