Muhammad’s mosque in Medina, and the aqsa
mosqUe in JerUsalem. The Shia would also add
the mosque-tombs of their Imams, such as those
of ali ibn abi talib (d. 661) in Najaf (Iraq) and
hUsayn ibn ali ibn abi talib (d. 680) in karbala
(Iraq). Contemporary mosques are designed to
accommodate new social requirements and envi-
ronments, although they continue some of the
older roles played by mosques. They are sel-
dom combined with shrines any more, but they
continue to serve educational as well as ritual
purposes. Mosque building continues to be an
important undertaking in modern Muslim societ-
ies, even among Muslims who have migrated to
eUrope and North America.
See also architectUre; bazaar.
Nuha N. N. Khoury
Further reading: Martin Frishman and Hasan Uddin
Khan, eds., The Mosque: History, Architectural Develop-
ment, and Regional Diversity (New York: Thames and
Hudson, 1994); Oleg Grabar, The Formation of Islamic
Art (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1973);
Renata Holod and Hasan Uddin-Khan, The Mosque and
the Modern World: Architects, Patrons, and Designs since
the 1950s (London: Thames and Hudson, 1997); David
McCauley, The Mosque (New York: Houghton Mifflin,
2003).
moulid See mawlid.
Mudejar
Muslims residing willingly as subjects of a Chris-
tian kingdom of the Iberian Peninsula (see anda-
lUsia) were known as Mudejars. The phenomenon
of Mudejarism emerged with the Christian capture
of Muslim territories, for example Toledo (1085),
and concluded with the decrees of compulsory
conversion to Christianity (1501, 1515, 1526). The
Spanish term mudéjar derives from an Arabic verb
connoting inter alia the taming of wild animals.
Mudejarism differs conceptually from the Quranic
status of dhimmi (protected peoples) that Muslims
accorded non-Muslim “people oF the book” resid-
ing in Islamic territories. Whereas Islamic law
protected non-Muslims, the Mudejars could be
disenfranchised and enslaved with impunity.
The survival of Mudejar culture and institu-
tions depended upon whether the capture was
accomplished through negotiated surrender or
military defeat, the ratio of Muslim to Christian
populations, the competing interests of the mon-
archy and the papacy, and economic exigencies.
For instance, during the conquest of the Balearic
Islands, the Muslims of Menorca refused to surren-
der and were enslaved. In Aragon, Navarre, Castile,
and Portugal, however, many Mudejars capitulated
following negotiations between local Muslim rulers
and the Christians. In theory, these treaties safe-
guarded Mudejar property, customs, and institu-
tions provided they swore loyalty to the monarchy
and paid an annual capitulation tax. In practice,
however, Mudejar rights were often curtailed.
Congregational mosqUes were confiscated and
converted into churches. In Aragon, the Crown
appointed Islamic judgeships and judicial rulings
could be overturned in a higher Christian court.
In Navarre and especially Valencia, where the
Mudejar majority constituted an indispensable
economic “royal treasure,” Muslims were banned
from emigration to Islamic territories. Papal coun-
cil edicts ordering the use of distinguishing cloth-
ing for Muslims (Fourth Lateran Council, 1215)
and prohibiting the call to prayer and Muslim pil-
grimages (Council of Vienna, 1311) were applied
in Castile and Aragon, but rarely enforced in
Valencia. Increasingly from the 13th century,
Mudejars were confined to ghettos (aljamas).
Mudejar institutions declined as the supply
of competent teachers of Arabic and the Islamic
sciences diminished. In response, the Mudejars
developed strategies of cultural resistance. Isa
ibn Jubayr of Segovia translated the qUran and
an abridged sUnna into Romance (Latin-derived
languages) for the Mudejars who no longer under-
stood Arabic. Mudejars banned from travel abroadK 486 moulid