(Reading, England: Garnet Publishing, 1998); F. E.
Peters, Muhammad and the Origins of Islam (Albany:
State University of New York Press, 1994); ———, A
Reader on Classical Islam (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton
University Press, 1994, 44–98); Maxime Rodinson, “A
Critical Survey of Modern Studies of Muhammad.” In
Studies on Islam, edited by Merlin Swartz, 23–85 (New
York: Oxford University Press, 1981); ———, Muham-
mad. Translated by Anne Carter (New York: New Press,
2002); Annemarie Schimmel, And Muhammad Is His
Messenger: The Veneration of the Prophet in Islamic Piety
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985);
Barbara Stowasser, Women in the Quran: Traditions and
Interpretation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994);
W. Montgomery Watt, Muhammad: Prophet and States-
man (London: Oxford University Press, 1961).
Muhammad Ali dynasty
This dynasty was founded by Muhammad Ali
Pasha (r. 1804–48) when he was appointed gov-
ernor of egypt by the Ottoman sUlta n in gratitude
for his help in defeating the French forces in Egypt.
Muhammad Ali was determined to both modern-
ize Egypt and establish an independent dynasty
there. A man of amazing drive and ambition, he
achieved both. He was succeeded by his descen-
dants Abbas (r. 1848–54), Said (r. 1854–63),
Ismail (r. 1863–79), Tawfiq (r. 1879–92), Abbas II
(r. 1892–1914), Husayn Kamil (r. 1914–17), Fuad
(r. 1917–36), and Faruq (r. 1936–52).
Muhammad Ali is considered the father of
modern Egypt; he set Egypt on the path of rapid
modernization and industrialization, forces that
were then continued by his successors. His grand-
son, Ismail, once expressed his conviction to Euro-
peanize Egypt, stating: “My country is no longer
in Africa, it is now in Europe.” Ismail encouraged
the development of a European-educated Egyptian
elite while at the same time holding on to a tradi-
tional and autocratic view of his own authority. He
was granted the title of khedive from the Ottoman
sultan, which conveyed a form of royalty, and was
given permission to expand his own army and
issue his own currency. Ismail used the greater
freedom in economic affairs to fund his ambitious
development projects. In the process, however, he
drove Egypt into bankruptcy. In 1876 the British
took over the Egyptian economy and were drawn
further into Egyptian affairs when they forcefully
put down the popular Urabi revolt in 1882. Under
British occupation access to free edUcation was
restricted and Egyptian industry was neglected
while cotton production increased for export to
English factories. Egypt had not become a part of
Europe, but it had become a part of a European
empire and was forced to develop in ways that
benefited the colonizer more than the colonized.
In 1922 Britain declared Egypt independent,
and London elevated the status of the Egyptian
ruler to king. But the British undermined the ideaMuhammad Ali Mosque (19th century), Cairo Citadel,
Egypt(Juan E. Campo)K 496 Muhammad Ali dynasty