pir See shaykh.
politics and Islam
In the medieval period the religious establishment
of Sunni Islam had for the most part come to a
position of mutual cooperation with the govern-
ment and refrained from direct involvement in
the political realm. However, the rise of European
powers in the 18th century and the correspond-
ing waning of Ottoman power encouraged several
Islamic revivalist movements that managed to
take over political power as well. Among these
were the Wahhabi movement that allied with
the tribe of Muhammad ibn Saud in Arabia (and
which still holds power down to the present day)
and the Mahdist movement in sUdan that was
brought to an end by the British in 1898.
Although European colonial powers were
aware of the potential threat of a religiously
motivated and pan-Islamic political movement,
it never fully materialized. Instead the anti-impe-
rialist efforts in Muslim lands and indeed the
political landscape as a whole were dominated
by other secular ideologies such as pan-Arabism,
nationalism, and socialism. However, it was the
failure of these ideologies to deliver on their
promises, combined with continuing economic
hardships, and a series of events—most notably
the defeat of the arab states by israel in 1967, the
oil crisis of 1973, and the iranian revolUtion oF
1978–1979—that helped to transform the ideal of
Islam into not only a viable political option, but
also—for some—into the only solution for the
dilemmas facing Muslim-majority countries and
the world at large.
This is not to say there is any consensus on
what the exact relationship should be between
Islam and politics. Muslim intellectuals and schol-
ars still debate to what extent din wa-dawla
(religion and government) accurately describes
Islam itself or what is the appropriate relationship
between religion and government. While some
argue for a separation of religion and government,
others believe Islam should shape government
and law.
Although many political parties believe Islam
supports democratic values and try to come to
power through democratic processes, they have
yet to be successful. This in turn has stirred up
debate about the possibility of an Islamic democ-
racy. At the conceptual level, Islam is neither
more nor less compatible with democracy than
any other religion; the debate has to do with the
ways in which historical and cultural factors shape
how Islam and politics are practiced and under-
stood in Muslim societies. A popular revolution
brought an Islamic government to power in Iran
in 1979, and the development of representative
government there has been encouraging; none-
theless, that country is currently facing tensions
between the reformers elected by the people, and
the unelected council of religious leaders that has
the power to veto any law or policy that they feel
conflicts with Islam. In many Muslim countries,
however, people have never been given the oppor-
tunity to debate the role of religion in politics.
Attempts to form religiously based political
parties have been thwarted by the largely secular
and military-based regimes that dominate Muslim
countries from North Africa to South Asia. When
an Islamic party won elections in algeria in 1992
the existing regime refused to step down and a
bloody civil war ensued. The Egyptian government
prevented a potentially similar outcome by out-
lawing Islamic parties and arresting their leaders.
In tUrkey the military has used various means to
ensure that its usually more secular point of view
is taken into account by the members of parlia-
ment. In Asia, Islamic political parties struggle to
work within the very limited freedoms that exist.
All of this has only increased the popular appeal of
Islamic groups as a solution to political oppression,
government corruption, and economic stagnation.
With apparently limited options, some Islamic
militant groups, especially in egypt, Algeria, and,
most recently, indonesia have turned to acts of
terrorism to destabilize and overthrow existingK 556 pir