of Fatima (Muhammad’s daughter and mother of
the Shii Imams), the assassination of ali ibn abi
talib (the fourth caliph and first Shii imam) in
661, and the martyrdom of Ali al-Rida (the eighth
Shii Imam) in 818.
Even though the month of fasting affirms the
universal community of all Muslims, individual
Muslim cultures observe Ramadan in a variety of
ways that are shaped by local tradition. There are
distinctive food traditions with respect to dishes
and sweets eaten in the evening and pre-dawn
hours. In North Africa a favorite recipe for break-
ing the fast is a creamy soup called harira, made
of meat, chickpeas, lentils, tomatoes, and fresh
herbs. Turks prepare a tripe soup served with a
pocket bread called ramadan pide (pita). Rama-
daniyya, a dessert made of dried fruits that have
been soaked overnight, is a favorite in the Arabian
Peninsula. Southeast Asian Muslims prepare spe-
cial meat curry dishes and dodol, a dessert made of
sugar, rice flour, and coconut milk.
Aside from different food traditions, Muslims
have other ways of celebrating the month. In
Egypt these include decorating streets and houses
with colorful lanterns. In many Muslim countries
special evening television programs are offered.
Ramadan celebrations in many countries have
become more commercialized in recent years,
with luxury hotels offering expensive iftar ban-
quets featuring popular entertainers. Since the
1980s in the United States, Ramadan has become
the one Muslim holiday of which non-Muslims
have become aware. Community newspapers
publish features about how it is observed by
the local Muslim population, including tradi-
tional food recipes. Since the terrorist attacks
on September 11, 2001, Muslim organizations
have participated increasingly in interfaith activi-
ties, including community iftar dinners with
Christians and Jews. The White House has also
honored this holy Islamic month by holding iftar
dinners.
See also almsgiving; cUstomary laW; Five pil-
lars; Food and drink; holidays; JUdaism and islam.
Further reading: Sarah Gauch, “Fasting Days, Fes-
tive Nights: Ramadan in Cairo,” Saudi Aramco World
53 (January–February 2002): 60–65; S. D. Goitein,
“Ramadan: The Muslim Month of Fasting.” In Studies in
Islamic History and Institutions, edited by S. D. Goitein,
90–100 (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1966); Angelika Neuwirth,
“Three Religious Feasts between Narratives of Violence
and Liturgies of Reconciliation.” In Religion between
Violence and Reconciliation, edited by Th. Sheffler,
49–82 (Beirut/Würzburg: Erbon Verlag in Kommission,
2002).Rashid Rida, Muhammad (1865–1935)
Islamic reformer and modernist
Muhammad Rashid Rida was born in Tripoli, syria
(present-day lebanon), on September 23, 1865, to
a family that claimed descent from mUhammad. He
was educated first in a traditional religious school
and then at the National Islamic School in Tripoli.
The curriculum at this school combined instruc-
tion in Islamic doctrine and law with European
languages and the natural sciences. Here Rida
learned to view science, technology, and some
European political ideas positively. During the
same period Rida became convinced, through
study of the medieval theologians al-ghazzali
(1058–1111) and ibn taymiyya (1263–1328), that
many contemporary Muslim religious practices
and orders were unacceptable corruptions (sing.
bidaa) of islam. He condemned Sufi rituals and
popular saints festivals in particular. He was a pro-
lific writer, producing several books, and worked
most of his life as editor of the magazine Al-Manar
(The beacon), which he founded in 1898. Rida is
one of the most important and influential intel-
lectuals who, through his writings, strove to rec-
oncile Islam with modernity.
As a young man, Rida was deeply impressed
by the Salafi reform movement founded in cairo
by Jamal al-din al-aFghani (1838–97) and his
student mUhammad abdUh (1849–1905). Both
men argued that Muslims needed to unify against
external threats and internally reinvigorate IslamRashid Rida, Muhammad 581 J