astray. Female Sufi leaders and spirit mediums
are called by the feminine form of this word—
shaykha. Since the 15th century, the most highly
esteemed Muslim scholars and mystics have been
recognized by the honorific title shaykh al-Islam
(Shaykh of Islam). It was also used as an official
title in the Ottoman Empire for a high-ranking
religious scholar appointed by the sUlta n. Based
in Istanbul, he functioned as a mUFti, issuing advi-
sory rulings based on the sharia regarding issues
of state as well as private matters.
The term continues to be used in modern con-
texts in a variety of ways. For example, Muslim
authorities in saUdi arabia who are descended
from mUhammad ibn abd al-Wahhab (1703–92),
the founder of the Wahhabi sect, are called Al
al-Shaykh (Family of the Shaykh) in his honor.
The rulers of Arab nations in the Persian Gulf
region (Kuwait, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates,
and, until recently, Bahrain) are called shaykhs
and their countries are known as shaykhdoms.
Whether the term applies to a tribal authority,
religious scholar, Sufi master, revivalist leader, or
head of state, its bearer is due respect and defer-
ence by others, especially those with lower status.
The equivalent to shaykh in Persian is pir, with a
comparable range of meanings, but especially in
Sufi contexts. It is used in eastern Muslim lands
such as iran, pakistan, and india.
See also gUlF states; murshid; ottoman
dynasty.
Further reading: Robert A. Fernea, Shaykh and Efendi:
Changing Patterns of Authority among the El Shabana of
Southern Iraq (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University
Press, 1970); Leonard Lewisohn, trans., “Hasan Palasi’s
Encounter with Shaykh Khujuji.” In Windows on the
House of Islam: Muslim Sources on Spirituality and Religious
Life, edited by John Renard, 375–383 (Berkeley: Univer-
sity of California Press, 1998); George Makdisi, The Rise
of Colleges: Institutions of Learning in Islam and the West
(Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh Press, 1971).
shaytan See satan.
Shiism
In studying the history of religions, scholars have
noted that religious traditions as a rule develop
alternative movements and sectarian expressions.
Judaism, which has had alternative forms in the
past, today has Orthodox, Reform, and Conser-
vative branches. Christianity, known for having
many sects and denominations throughout its
history, today has Roman Catholic, Orthodox, and
Protestant branches. Hindu devotionalism, known
as bhakti, is characterized by a threefold division
into traditions centered on the gods Vishnu and
Shiva, and the Goddess (Devi). The Buddhist
community, or sangha, developed three major
doctrinal traditions—Theravada, Mahayana, and
Vajrayana. Islam, though often identified with
the ideal of a unified community of all believers
known as the umma, is no different. The primary
division it has is the one that exists between
sUnnism, the majority tradition, and Shiism, an
umbrella term for the minority tradition.
The term Shiism is used by modern scholars
of Islamic Studies to describe not one but several
important Islamic sectarian traditions and move-
ments that have appeared in Islam’s history. It is
based on the Arabic word shia, which means party
or faction, and it was first used with reference to
the group of Muslims who favored the candidacy
of ali ibn abi talib (d. 661) and his descen-
dants as the legitimate successors to the prophet
mUhammad, the leader of the Muslim community,
upon his sudden death in 632. This group was
called shiat Ali, the party of Ali. Unlike other
men in the early Muslim community, Ali was
Muhammad’s closest male relative, his paternal
cousin and son-in-law by marriage to his daugh-
ter Fatima. He staked his claim as a candidate for
leadership on the basis of kinship, and, according
to the Shia, Muhammad’s declaration at ghadir
khUmm that AIi was the master (mawla) of those
who also regarded Muhammad as their master.
However, many of the influential members of the
community favored choosing a leader on the basis
of reputation and the consensus of leading males.
This view prevailed at the time of Muhammad’sShiism 623 J