kind of patriotism known as Ottomanism. The
edict also included some limitations on the arbi-
trary powers of the sultan. This document served
partly to show the European powers, which were
increasingly becoming a dominating force in Otto-
man politics, that progress was being made.
The reforms were not entirely successful, due in
part to opposition from conservatives, who objected
to the imposition of non-Muslim institutions, and
to conflicts with the European powers. After the
Crimean War (1853–56), reforms continued with
the promulgation of another imperial edict in 1856,
which revised the rights of the 1839 decree, and
lasted until the end of Abd al-Aziz’s reign through
the efforts of the reformist viziers Fuad Pasha and
Ali Pasha. In 1876, the empire’s first constitUtion
was promulgated under Sultan Abd al-Hamid, but it
was soon suspended and the parliament established
under its terms was abolished by this sultan, who
saw it as a challenge to his own absolute authority.
Besides these specific reforms, the Tanzimat
era saw a general increase in European influence,
secularization, and liberal ideals based on the
individual, as well as the continued growth of
nationalist sentiment, particularly in the Balkans.
It was also during this period that important tech-
nological advances, which were to have an impact
on the social and political fabric of society, began
to take hold, especially the railroad, telegraph, and
newspapers. The Tanzimat period highlighted the
problem of the compatibility of islam with mod-
ern Western civilization, which was to continue
to be an issue until the end of the empire and the
founding of the Republic of Turkey in 1923.
See also ottoman dynasty; secUlarism;
Westernization.
Mark SoileauFurther reading: Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Mod-
ern Turkey (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968);
Niyazi Berkes, The Development of Secularism in Turkey
(Montreal: McGill University Press, 1964); Roderic
H. Davison, Reform in the Ottoman Empire 1856–1876
(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1963).
taqiyya See shiism.
taqlid See akhbari school; ijtihad; renewal and
reform movements; sharia.taqwa
Taqwa is an Arabic term that describes attitudes
of piety, reverence, and good judgment in Islam
that are related to worshipping and obeying God.
Muslims believe taqwa is a characteristic that
God bestows upon Muslims who desire to submit
themselves to God, “Those who are rightly guided
will be given greater guidance by him and he will
provide them with taqwa” (Quran 47:17). Taqwa
entails that Muslims strictly observe islam’s legal
codes, showing beneficence toward other people,
while respecting peace and the sanctity of human
life. At times, the meanings of taqwa and iman
(Faith) overlap. For example, Quran 2:197 reflects,
in part, the relationship between taqwa, iman, and
the haJJ, “Make provisions for the journey, and the
best provision is taqwa.” In this sense, reverence to
God is equated with faith, meaning that if a Muslim
believes in God as she or he makes the hajj, that
person’s physical and spiritual needs will be met
through God’s steadfastness. Muslims also interpret
this passage as suggesting that God will provide for
them consistently as they pursue life’s journey.
Taqwa is also the capacity of good judgment
that God instills in faithful Muslims, “When the
disbelievers fostered a sense of honor in their
hearts, a sense of pagan honor, God sent down
tranquility on his apostle and the believers, and
imposed on them the command to act in accor-
dance with taqwa for they were deserving and
worthy of it” (Quran 48:26). Muslims believe that
taqwa enables them (1) to properly understand
the meanings of the qUran, hadith, and sharia
without misconstruing or misapplying them and
(2) to make the correct moral judgments both
as individuals and as a community. Muslims are
obliged to fulfill all their ritual duties (such as theK 662 taqiyya