movements, it is that the only legitimate govern-
ment is that which recognizes the absolute unity
and sovereignty of God. In their view submission
to Islamic rule offers believers a way to salvation
in this world and in the afterlife. Where attempts
at establishing such theocratic governments have
been made, however, the record is less than
impressive thus far. They have usually resulted in
totalitarian rule and gross violations of individual
hUman rights.
See also anthropomorphism; batin; brethren
oF pUrity; dialogUe; Fat e; fitna; hasan al-basri;
heresy; ibn al-arabi, mUhyi al-din; imam; islamic
government; kufr; mUlla sadra; reneWal and
reForm movements.
Further reading: Frederick M. Denny, An Introduction to
Islam, 3d ed. (1994. Reprint, Upper Saddle River, N.J.:
Pearson Education, 2006), 164–186; Sayyed Hossein
Nasr and Oliver Leaman, eds., History of Islamic Philos-
ophy (London: Routledge, 1996); F. E. Peters, A Reader
on Classical Islam (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University
Press, 1994), 358–412; Fazlur Rahman, Islam. 2d ed.
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979); Josef
van Ess, The Flowering of Muslim Theology (Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2006); W. Montgom-
ery Watt, Islamic Philosophy and Theology (Edinburgh:
Edinburgh University Press, 1962); Harry A. Wolfson,
The Philosophy of Kalam (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
University Press, 1976).
Thousand and One Nights See arabian
nights.
Timbuktu
Timbuktu is a West African city renowned as a
“city of scholars” during medieval times. Its fame
extended to Europe, where it became fabled as a
city of mystery and wealth, due to its connections
with the historic caravan trade in gold. In the
19th century, Timbuktu became the destination
of European explorers, who sought to confirm
its glorious reputation. However, the small, pro-
vincial town they discovered largely disappointed
them.
Located near the Niger River (in modern-day
Mali) and along several important caravan trade
routes, Timbuktu achieved its fame during the
ascendancy of the Songhay dynasty (1468–1591).
However, the city always maintained a degree
of autonomy, perhaps developed during its early
history as a self-governing town. From 1325, the
empire of Mali ruled Timbuktu. Yet, the city’s
inhabitants asserted their independence whenever
possible, finally breaking free of Malian sover-
eignty in 1433. It may have been this penchant for
independence that led the Songhay founder, Sunni
Ali, to treat Timbuktu harshly after he conquered
the city in 1468. However, later Songhay leaders
showed more favor to Timbuktu, and it developed
as a bustling commercial center and home for a
renowned line of Maliki religious scholars.
The city’s golden age was brought to an abrupt
end when Moroccan armies, sent by the sultan
Ahmad al-Mansur (r. 1578–1603), brought down
the Songhay dynasty in 1591. Once again, the
autonomy of Timbuktu led to harsh treatment by
the new conquerors, who rounded up the leading
religious authorities and took them to Marrakesh
in chains. Following this disaster, Timbuktu lost
its centrality as a “city of scholars,” undoubtedly
due to the decline of the caravan trade, which was
also severely disrupted by the Moroccan invasion.
In the following centuries, Timbuktu would be
eclipsed by other cities as centers of West Afri-
can Islamic scholarship. Nevertheless, its love
for autonomy remained, as seen in the rise of a
resistance movement to the jihadist al-Hajj Umar
tal, who attempted to control the city in 1862. A
counter-Jihad, led by Timbuktu scholar Ahmad al-
Bakkai, laid siege to Umar’s capital at Hamdullahi,
bringing an end to his state. However, the estab-
lishment of French colonial authority in 1894
once again put Timbuktu under the authority of
outside powers. Since the achievement of Mali’s
independence in 1960, and with the caravan tradeK 670 Thousand and One Nights