(r. 644–655), the third caliph, and the acces-
sion of ali ibn abi talib (r. 656–661). Uthman’s
cousin, Muawiya, who was governor of syria,
refused to recognize Ali as caliph. Civil war broke
out between supporters of Ali and Muawiya; Ali
was assassinated, and Muawiya declared himself
caliph. Muawiya was a member of the Umayyad
family, the wealthiest and most powerful branch
of the qUraysh in mecca. Muawiya moved the
capital of the Islamic state from medina to damas-
cUs, Syria. He also changed the caliphate in fact,
if not in principle, to a dynasty by naming his son
as his successor, thus setting a precedent for the
caliphate passing from father to son.
Under the Umayyads, the process of Islamic
expansion began again. Parts of Egypt that had
fallen under Byzantine control were retaken.
Umayyad armies moved west across North Africa
to the Atlantic coast. In 711 they crossed the Strait
of Gibraltar and began the conquest of andalUsia
(Spain); soon, the entire Iberian Peninsula was
under Muslim control. Their advance into Europe
was finally stopped in 732 at the Battle of Tours,
when Charles Martel of France won a decisive
engagement against a Muslim raiding force. In the
east, the expansion continued, eventually reach-
ing as far as the borders of present-day india.
As the Umayyads increased the extent of their
empire, they set in place systems to unite the
disparate peoples of the empire. Abd al-Malik (r.
685–705) declared Arabic the official language
of the empire. Up to this time, local govern-
ment had been conducted in the local language;
now, all government business was conducted in
Arabic. The Umayyads introduced a common
coinage throughout the empire, called dinars.
The common currency made it easier to conduct
business between different parts of the empire.
The Umayyads also spread Islamic religious archi-
tecture throughout the empire. When a region
was conquered, a mosqUe was built for communal
prayer and to give thanks to God. Although these
mosques were built from local materials, they
eventually featured the same essential elements: a
minaret, a mihrab, and an ablution fountain. The
introduction of a common language, currency,
and religious architecture helped develop a dis-
tinctive Islamic culture.
After about 90 years of Umayyad rule, the
empire faced serious internal challenges. By 732,
the armies were making fewer conquests. This
stopped the flow of captured wealth into the econ-
omy. At the same time, many non-Muslims within
the empire had converted to Islam. As a result,
they paid less in taxes, decreasing a steady source
of revenue. The divisions within Islam itself also
came to the fore. Muslims who had supported Ali
as caliph because of his family ties to Muham-
mad were known as shiat Ali, “party of Ali,” or
the Shia (see shiism). They saw the Umayyads
as usurpers who had seized the caliphate from
the rightful head of the Muslim community. This
internal conflict was exploited by the Abbasids,
who claimed the caliphate based on the descent
of Abbas, Muhammad’s uncle. In 747 this dissen-
sion led to rebellion against the Umayyads; in 750
the Umayyad caliphate was overthrown, and the
abbasid caliphate began.
See also arabic langUage and literatUre;
fitna.
Kate O’HalloranFurther reading: Hugh Kennedy, The Prophet and the
Age of the Caliphates (Harlow, England: Longman,
2003); Wilferd Madelung, The Succession to Muhammad:
A Study of the Early Caliphate (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1999).umma (Arabic: community, nation, tribe,
people)
In each of the three Abrahamic religions the idea
of an overarching community of the faithful holds
great importance alongside doctrines of individual
responsibility before God. The foremost concept
of such a community in Judaism is that of Israel,
or the people of Israel (Bene Yisrael). In Chris-
tianity it is the church (ekklesia). Muslims feelumma 687 J