Usman Dan Fodio (Uthman ibn
Fudi) (1754–1817) religious reformer and founder
of the Sokoto Caliphate in northeastern Nigeria
Born to a distinguished scholarly family during
the late 18th century, Usman established himself
as a respected scholar and teacher in the Hausa
kingdom of Gobir. An adherent of the qadiri
sUFi order, Usman preached a radical message
of reform that attracted a large following during
the 1780s and 1790s. When the sultan of Gobir
attacked his followers in 1804, Usman imitated
the example of mUhammad by leaving Gobir on a
hiJ ra, establishing an Islamic state and declaring
holy war (Jihad) against his persecutors. In the
ensuing years, Usman’s armies united much of
Hausaland under his authority. At his death in
1817, Usman’s son Muhammad Bello (d. 1837)
succeeded him as caliph in the new capital city
of Sokoto, which he had helped design. The
Sokoto caliphs effectively organized their ter-
ritories into a coherent state that maintained
its independence until the British colonized the
region in 1903.
Although he founded the largest independent
state in Africa during the 19th century, Usman
was primarily a religious teacher and spiritual
example. A prolific writer on religious topics, he
was also an accomplished poet, composing poems
in both Arabic and his native Fulfide. In his later
years, Usman was regarded as a saint, and people
sought him out for spiritual power. After his
death, Usman’s tomb became a pilgrimage site,
and stories of his miraculous works added to the
luster of his image as a holy man.
See also reneWal and reForm movements;
sokoto caliphate; West aFrica.
Stephen CoryFurther reading: Remi Adeleye, Power and Diplomacy
in Northern Nigeria, 1804–1906: The Sokoto Caliphate
and Its Enemies (New York: Humanities Press, 1971);
Mervyn Hiskett, The Sword of Truth: The Life and Times
of the Shehu Usman Dan Fodio, 2d ed. (Evanston, Ill.:
Northwestern University Press, 1994); Murray Last, The
Sokoto Caliphate (London: Humanities Press, 1967).Uthman ibn Affan (ca. 580–656) third
Muslim caliph
Uthman ibn Affan was the third of the four Sunni
“rightly guided” caliphs, or Rashidun, along with
abU bakr (r. 632–634), Umar ibn al-khattab (r.
634–644), and ali ibn abi talib (r. 656–661).
A member of the Umayyad clan of the qUraysh
tribe of mecca, he inherited his father’s business
and became a wealthy trader before converting to
islam. After his conversion, he became Muham-
mad’s son-in-law. On the death of Umar ibn al-
Khattab, the committee charged with electing a
successor named Uthman caliph. This angered
the supporters of Ali, who was both Muhammad’s
son-in-law and his cousin and was thus a blood
relative of the Prophet.
As caliph, Uthman continued the expansion of
the empire begun by Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al-
Khattab. He also defeated attempts by the Byzan-
tines to recover some of their lost territory. Uthman
centralized the administration of the caliphate,
dividing it into 12 provinces, each with a gover-
nor, chief judge, and tax collector. Some of these
administrative positions, including the governor-
ships of four provinces, were given to members
of Uthman’s own Umayyad family. Many saw this
as nepotism. Objections were also raised to one of
Uthman’s other projects: compiling the definitive
text of the qUran. Until that time, the Quran had
been an oral text, memorized and recited by follow-
ers of Muhammad. Uthman formed a committee to
collect all versions of the Quran, both oral and
written, and to prepare a definitive written version
of the text. Some of Uthman’s opponents saw this
as religious innovation and an attempt to control
the text of the Quran. Combined with economic
difficulties resulting from mismanagement of the
empire’s finances, these issues led to widespread
discontent. In 656 Uthman was assassinated in hisK 700 Usman Dan Fodio