began to publish books on Delhi and Mughal his-
tory, revealing that despite his inadequate school-
ing, he had a gift for self-guided learning that
allowed him to see things in new ways. When the
1857 uprising occurred, Ahmad Khan remained
true to British authorities and subsequently took
some pains to demonstrate to them that most
Muslims had not supported the rebellion. As part
of this effort, he even published a commentary on
the Bible in 1862 to promote better understanding
between Muslims and Christians. Nonetheless,
he also felt that Indians should “honestly, openly
and respectfully speak out their grievances” to the
British (Gandhi 26).
The real turning point in his career came in
1869, when he journeyed with his two sons to
England, where one of them was to be enrolled at
Cambridge University with a government scholar-
ship. Ahmad Khan stayed in England for about a
year, became familiar with its system of higher
edUcation, and wrote a number of essays on the
life of Muhammad. When he returned to India,
he began to publish his ideas for reforming Islam
in a new journal, Tahdhib-i akhlaq (Refinement
of morals). There he criticized areas of fiqh (tra-
ditional religious law) that dealt with polygamy,
interest, dress, and dietary rUles, arguing that
many of the traditional rules conflicted with the
eternal message of the qUran, which was in com-
plete conformity with reason, or natural law. He
also called for more use of independent judgment
(ijtihad), especially in relation to modern life. Fur-
thermore, Ahmad Khan implemented what he had
learned about British education with the founding
in 1875 of the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental Col-
lege in the town of aligarh, where Muslims and
Hindus were to gain a modern education in the
arts, science, and law. He also remained involved
in Indian politics, opposing the creation of the
Indian National Congress in 1885 because he
thought that Indians had not yet reached the point
at which they could really govern themselves.
He believed a status quo arrangement between
Indian elites and the British was more realistic,
and he won support for his views from other lead-
ing Muslims and Hindus. In appreciation for his
efforts, the British awarded him a knighthood in- The Indian nationalist currents prevailed,
however, despite Ahmad Khan’s dream of coop-
erative governance of India by British and Indian
elites. The last years of his life were spent in
Aligarh, continuing his efforts at reform and writ-
ing a modernist commentary on the Quran.
See also all-india mUslim leagUe; hindUism
and islam; reneWal and reForm movements.
Further reading: Rajmohan Gandhi, Eight Lives: A
Study of the Hindu-Muslim Encounter (Albany: State
University of New York Press, 1986); Hafeez Malik, Sir
Sayyid Ahmad Khan and Muslim Modernization in India
and Pakistan (New York: Columbia University Press,
1980).Aisha bint Abi Bakr ibn Abi Quhafa (ca.
614–ca. 678) one of Muhammad’s favorite wives
and a leading member of the early Muslim community
Aisha (Aysha) was born in mecca to abU bakr
(d. 634), the close friend of mUhammad and first
caliph of Islam. Aisha was betrothed to Muham-
mad in the year 623 in medina, when she was
nine years old. Aisha was the only virgin whom
Muhammad married, and she never bore any chil-
dren. She is often remembered as Muhammad’s
closest and most beloved wife, as the person
having the most intimate understanding of the
Prophet’s practices. As a result, Aisha is credited
by Sunnis as the transmitter of more than 2,000
hadith accounts. After Muhammad’s death, she
was consulted as an authority on his habits and
recommendations.
In 627, Aisha was accused by some Medinan
Muslims of committing adUltery. During a jour-
ney with Muhammad and his caravan, she had
become separated from the group while searching
for a lost necklace. A young man found her and
accompanied her back to Medina safely. Rumors
began to circulate, accusing her of engaging inAisha bint Abi Bakr ibn Abi Quhafa 25 J