communities in many African states, sometimes
leading to interfaith violence. The continent’s larg-
est country, Nigeria, has been particularly plagued
by conflict between its Christian majority and size-
able Muslim minority population.
As the 21st century opens, West African Mus-
lims face the critical challenges of uniting Muslims
from many backgrounds and persuasions, main-
taining peaceful coexistence with non-Muslims,
and helping their societies overcome crippling
problems such as poverty, underdevelopment, and
corrupt governments.
See also christianity and islam; colonial-
ism; east aFrica; mUridi sUFi order; qadiri sUFi
order; sokoto caliphate; Umar tal.
Stephen CoryFurther reading: J. F. Ade Ajayi, Michael Crowder,
ed., History of West Africa. 2 vols. (London: Longman,
1987); Louis Brenner, Muslim Identity and Social Change
in Sub-Saharan Africa (Bloomington: Indiana University
Press, 1993); Peter B. Clark, West Africa and Islam (Lon-
don: Arnold, 1982); Mervyn Hiskett, The Development
of Islam in West Africa (London: Longman, 1984).
West Bank See palestine.
Westernization
The process of Westernization is generally,
although not exclusively, associated with changes
as postcolonial and developing nations move from
more traditional political, social, and economic
systems of organization to models mirroring
Western, primarily western European and North
American, societies and the institutions that devel-
oped there in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries.
These changes include industrialization, the move
toward capitalism, the development of parliamen-
tarianism, the growth of state bureaucracies, and a
new, increasingly private role for religion.
Beginning in the late 19th century, Muslim
societies experienced heightened interaction with
Western powers and ideas, most notably through
the latter’s colonial activities in the Middle East
and North Africa, as well as in South and South-
east Asia. Among other effects of this contact
was the initiation of reform efforts in Muslim
societies, most notably the Ottoman Empire.
Intellectually and politically, Ottoman officials,
regional governors, and intellectuals worked to
reconcile modern Western ideas of edUcation,
economics, law, the family, and science with an
Islamic framework. Many of the same issues with
which these figures grappled in the 19th century
continue to inform debate today.
Many disputes surrounding the idea and phe-
nomenon of Westernization focus on the origins
of its constitutive elements and the degree to
which they are transferable to non-Western soci-
eties. Some of the most widely felt and passionate
debates about the meaning of Westernization and
its effects have taken place in societies with major-
ity Muslim populations. In many cases, these
debates center on whether or not modernization
can be distinguished from Westernization, that
is, whether it is possible to integrate modern sci-
entific, religious, political, social, and economic
ideas while at the same time protecting aspects of
local identities and institutions.
In both iran and egypt, for example, serious
attempts have been made to distinguish tech-
nological, military, economic, religious, social,
and political changes from outright adherence
to Western ideas and norms. The association of
many of these ideas and institutions with colo-
nialism and imperialism has inspired strenuous
efforts to distinguish modernization from West-
ernization, with the latter most often tied to the
onset of social and moral decay. Modernization,
on the other hand, refers to the use of modern
science and technologies and is generally accepted
by Islamists and other critics of Westernization.
In fact, many urban Islamists have a background
in the modern natural sciences, reflecting a per-
ceived distinction between the cultural effects of
Westernization, generally seen as destructive, andK 710 West Bank