experienced stUdent unrest and repeated demands
for reform. Following Tunisian independence in
1956, the Zaytuna became part of the Tunisian
public education system and its library was inte-
grated into the National Libraries of Tunisia.
See also Westernization.
Stephen Cory
Further reading: Robert Brunschvig, La Berbérie ori-
entale sous les Hafsides des origins á la fin du XVe siècle
(Paris: Adrien Maisonneuve, 1940–1947); Ahmad Fikri,
Masdjid al-Zaytuna, al-djami’ fi Tunis (Cairo: 1953);
Muhammad b. ‘Uthman al-Hasha’ishi, Djami’ al-Zay-
tuna (Tunis: 1974); Georges Marçais, L’architecture
musulmane d’Occident: Tunisie, Algérie, Maroc, Espagne
et Sicilei (Paris: Gouvernement Général de l’Algérie,
1955).
zikr See dhikr.
zina See adultery.
ziyara (Arabic; Persian and Urdu: ziyarat)
Pilgrimages are religious journeys to holy places
that involve encounters with supramundane
beings, such as a god, saint, ancestor, relic, or
another sort of spiritual being. They also bring
people, many of them strangers, into relationship
with each other. Pilgrimage traditions exist in
many of the world’s cultures and religion. In addi-
tion to Islam, they also have been an important
part of religious life for the followers of the Chris-
tian, Hindu, and Buddhist religions, in which
pilgrimages are made to hundreds of holy sites by
millions of people each year.
One of the major forms of pilgrimage in
Muslim lands is the ziyara, which in Arabic liter-
ally means “visit” and “visitation.” Islamic law
requires that all Muslims who are able perform
the haJJ pilgrimage at least once in their lives to
mecca. This is one of Islam’s Five pillars. The
umra, or lesser pilgrimage to Mecca, is one that
is recommended, but not required. These two
pilgrimages are accepted by all of the Muslim
legal schools. Ziyara is the term usually used for
voluntary pilgrimages to other Muslim shrines.
They are very popular and are found, with a few
important exceptions, in all Muslim communities.
Like Mecca, these other sites are focal points of
baraka (blessing and grace) where communica-
tions between humans and the divine are believed
to be especially effective. Unlike Mecca, however,
shrines are sacred because they are believed to
contain the physical remains or relics of a holy
man or woman. Some ziyara shrines are transre-
gional, drawing pilgrims from near and far, oth-
ers are more local. Pilgrims frequent these sites
for many reasons—in quest of a cure, fertility,
forgiveness, consolation, success in business or
school, resolution of a dispute, fulfillment of a
vow, participation in Sufi devotions and dhikrs,
or joining with others in a carnivalesque celebra-
tion of the holy person’s anniversary (mawlid or
urs). Key ritual activities performed during shrine
pilgrimages include decoration of the tomb with
flowers, lights, pictures, calligraphy, and cloth
coverings, circumambulation of the tomb, touch-
ing and kissing the tomb, votive offerings, for-
mal prayer (salat) and voluntary petitions (dua),
Quran recitation, ceremonial processions, animal
sacrifice, distribution of food, and almsgiving.
Other activities that may be found include musi-
cal performances, dhikrs, and circumcisions. Pil-
grims include a cross-section of society, including
many women. Where it is possible, such as sites in
india and egypt, non-Muslims also join in, either
as pilgrims, local celebrants, or vendors.
The sacred ziyara site par excellence for
Muslims is the mosque-tomb of Muhammad in
medina. Although it is not part of the hajj, visit-
ing the Prophet’s mosque and praying there is
considered to be highly meritorious before or after
performing the hajj or umra. Indeed, according
to an oft-quoted hadith, Muhammad promised,
“Whoever visits my grave (or house), deservesK 722 zikr