E.J. Brill, 1997); Matti Moosa, Extremist Shiites: The
Ghulat Sects (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press,
1988); Tord Olsson, Elisabeth Ozdalga, and Catharina
Raudvere, Alevi Identity: Cultural, Religious and Social
Perspectives (Istanbul: Swedish Research Institute in
Istanbul, 1998); J. Spencer Trimingham, The Sufi Orders
in Islam (Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon Press, 1971).
Alawid dynasty (1668–present)
The current ruling dynasty of morocco, the
Alawis are one of the few precolonial monarchies
to successfully transition into the era of inde-
pendent nation-states. The dynasty first arose in
southeastern Morocco and established its author-
ity throughout the country during the 1660s,
under the leadership of Mulay Rashid (d. 1672).
Throughout the next 240 years, Alawid sultans
ruling from Fez or Meknes were usually able to
control the main urban centers and allied tribes
(bilad al-makhzen), but they did not receive more
than cursory allegiance from the rural hinterlands
(bilad al-siba).
The situation changed with the establish-
ment of the French protectorate over Morocco in
- The French pursued a policy of divide and
rule while trying to maintain the illusion of local
governance through a compliant Alawid sUlta n
(now called “king”). However, King Muhammad
V used this approach against them when he rallied
nationalist support around his passive resistance
to French authority. In 1956, the French adminis-
tration recognized Moroccan independence under
the leadership of its traditional monarchy.
In many ways, the centralizing influence of
the French allowed the Alawis to consolidate their
control to a degree that was not possible prior to
the protectorate. Although the new nation estab-
lished institutions for participatory government,
such as elections and a national assembly, aUthor-
ity remained firmly in the hands of the monarchy.
Alawid kings (such as Hasan II, r. 1961–99) used
their status as sharifs (descendants of the prophet
mUhammad) to highlight their religiopolitical
authority as “Commander of the Faithful.” This
undercut the rise of radical Islamic challenges to
their leadership. The current king, Muhammad VI,
seeks to bring much-needed reforms to Moroccan
society while retaining ultimate political power.
Having ruled Morocco for some 335 years, the
Alawid dynasty shows no signs of relinquishing
power any time soon.
See also ahl al-bayt; colonialism.
Stephen CoryFurther reading: John P. Halstead, Rebirth of a Nation:
The Origins and Rise of Moroccan Nationalism (Cam-
bridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1967); Abdallah
Laroui, The History of the Maghrib: An Interpretive Essay
(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1977).alchemy (Arabic: al-kimiya)
Alchemy is a combination of chemistry and magi-
cal knowledge that originated with the Greeks,
developed in Islamicate lands, and was transmit-
ted from there to medieval Europe. The outward
purpose of alchemy was to transform base metals
such as lead into precious ones such as silver and
gold. Alchemists engaged in a range of related
efforts, such as trying to create life and search-
ing for a medicine to prolong it—an elixir of
immortality. Their ideas recognized the ancient
Greek division of the natural world into four ele-
ments (earth, fire, water, and air) plus four quali-
ties (hot, cold, moist, and dry). They believed
in astrology, too, which meant that alchemists
thought there was a correspondence between the
heavenly world and the earthly world. All mat-
ter and spirit, though outwardly different, were
really one in essence. Alchemy seeks to play upon
this supposed inner unity to change or transform
an imperfect or lesser phenomenon into a more
perfect, purified one. Not only might lead be
transformed into gold, but the human soul itself
could be purified of worldly stain. In attempting
this, alchemy merges with metaphysics. Muslimalchemy 29 J