letters written separately, and some suras even
take their names from these letters, like suras
Ta Ha (Q 20) and Ya Sin (Q 36). There has been
much disagreement about what the letters mean,
but some Muslims explain that their meaning is a
mystery known only to God. Muslims also have
assigned numerical value to individual letters. For
example, many Muslims living in Asia have signs
in their businesses and vehicles bearing the num-
ber 786, which is the numerical sum of the letters
in the phrase bismillah al-rahman al-rahim (In the
name of God, the most compassionate and most
merciful), known as the basmala. It is believed to
bring good fortune and divert the evil eye. Shii
and Sufi Muslims have a long tradition of inter-
preting the secret meanings of Arabic letters. This
can be seen in the interpretation of the the three
letters alif-lam-mim that begin the second chapter
of the Quran. Sufis believed the alif represented
Allah, that the mim represented Muhammad, and
that the lam represented Gabriel, the angel who
acted as the emissary between God and Muham-
mad in delivering the Quran. In some contexts,
the calculation of the numerical values of letters
has been used in numerology to foretell the future
and write magic spells. This was known as jafr.
See also arabic langUage and literatUre; cal-
ligraphy; persian langUage and literatUre; tUrk-
ish langUage and literatUre.
Further reading: Kristin Brustad, Mahmoud al-Batal,
and Abbas Tonsi, Alif Baa: Introduction to Arabic Letters
and Sounds (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University
Press, 2001); Peter Daniels and W. Bright, eds., The
World’s Writing Systems (New York: Oxford University
Press, 1996); Gerhard Endress, An Introduction to Islam
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1988); Annema-
rie Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam (Chapel
Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1975).
amulets and talismans
An amulet is a material object believed to pro-
tect a person or possession against evil forces.
A talisman is an object believed to provide good
fortune or have some benefit for a person or
possession, though it can also have a protective
function as well. The two terms are often used
interchangeably. Amulets and talismans are often
small enough to be worn on the body, but they can
also be placed in a person’s home, workplace, or
vehicle. Their use is attested in the religions of the
ancient world, in tribal societies, and among the
followers of the major religious traditions, includ-
ing the Abrahamic religions, Judaism, Christianity,
and Islam. In the comparative study of religions,
scholars have classified the use of amulets and
talismans as a form of magic—a way of looking
at the world based on a belief that a person can
manipulate natural and supernatural forces for
good or bad purposes.
Though some Muslim scholars and reformers
have criticized the use of amulets and talismans,
making and wearing them is a widespread prac-
tice in traditional and modern Islamicate societ-
ies. They are known by various Arabic terms, the
most common being hijab, hirz, tawiz, tamima,
and tilsam. They can be simple objects, such as
a bead, stone, piece of jewelry, relic from a holy
place, or a drawing of an unusual animal or
supernatural being. They often consist of pieces
of paper with the names oF god, angels, saints,
and Jinnis written on them, or select passages
from the qUran, such as the last two chapters (Q
113 and 114), which are called the “protection-
seeking ones,” and the Throne Verse (Q 2:256).
More elaborate amulets and talismans combine
these elements with drawings of squares contain-
ing magic numbers, astrological symbols, and
letters. Such magical objects are placed in a cloth
bag, leather pouch, or case made of gold or silver
and worn on the body. Small copies of the entire
Quran are also commonly used as amulets and
talismans.
People believe that amulets and talismans can
help channel the power of blessing (baraka) to
protect a child or valuable possessions, obtain a
cure from a physical or mental illness, spark aK 40 amulets and talismans