160BROWNFIELDS
The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
defines brownfields as “abandoned, idled, or underutilized(^) properties where expansion or redevelopment is compli-
cated by the potential or confirmed existence of chemical(s)
of concern.” The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) Web page states, “Brownfields are abandoned, idled,
or under-used industrial and commercial facilities where
expansion or redevelopment is complicated by real or per-
ceived environmental contamination.”
In the mid-twentieth century, brownfield was a planners’
term for urban blight. Brownfields had existed for decades,
perhaps centuries, but a strong focus on cleaning up these
properties did not happen until the 1970s (see Table 1).
Concurrent with the federal use of brownfields, several local
and state governments adopted the term for their efforts to
bring about economic revitalization. Most governments
have adopted specific legal definitions of brownfields.
These definitions reflect differing environmental and eco-
nomic conditions but have strong similarities to the federal
definition.
In everyday language, a brownfield is an area that is con-
taminated or perceived to be contaminated. Most brownfields
can be redeveloped, revitalized, and reused after assessment
and cleanup. The EPA’s brownfields program helps commu-
nities work together to create jobs and put abandoned prop-
erties back into productive use. The EPA, together with other
federal, state, and local agencies, provides funds, coordina-
tion, and advice for the cleanup of brownfields.
Politically, brownfields have been contrasted to “green-
fields.” Greenfields are rural areas that are in danger of being
converted to industrial areas. The goals of many brown-
field programs include saving farmland and open spaces
in addition to putting brownfields back into industrial use.
Development of greenfields can be economically and envi-
ronmentally problematic, because it means building ship-
ping and utility infrastructures that are essential for most
industrial development. Development of brownfields can be
economically and environmentally more desirable because
they often have utility connections like water, sewer, and
electricity as well as train access with sidings. Further, cities
and counties can regain or enhance their tax base by cleaning
and redeveloping brownfields.
This article discusses the history of brownfields, lists
some common and legal definitions, discusses the associa-
tions with social justice and banking issues, and gives a case
study of a showcase community that demonstrates creative
successes. It does not discuss the associated new urbanism
movement within architecture and urban planning.
HISTORY
The history of brownfields is intertwined with the history
of hazardous-waste cleanups and the EPA. In the 1960s the
United States grappled with the challenge of many unused
and contaminated facilities. These properties were across the
United States, from the shuttered steel mills in Pennsylvania
and Cleveland to mining operations in Montana and Arizona
to closed timber mills in Washington and Oregon. The facili-
ties represented many industries, including closed smelters,
metal-plating factories, machine shops, and chemical plants.
Many facilities had complied with the few environmental
regulations of the early 1900s.
In response to a fire on the Cuyahoga River, President
Richard Nixon created the EPA in 1969 by presidential
directive. The new EPA was faced with such media disas-
ters as Love Canal, the Valley of the Drums, and Bridgeport.
The EPA began regulatory efforts with the Clean Air Act and
Clean Water Act, closely followed by regulations to control
hazardous substances. In 1976, the Resource Conservation
and Recovery Act (RCRA) and Toxic Substance Control
Act (TSCA) initiated cleanup regulations. In 1980, the
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation,
and Liability Act (CERCLA, or Superfund) ushered in two
decades of federal Superfund cleanups. Many states created
analogous legislation and regulations. From 1984 to 1995,
Superfund cleanups were financed by a tax on the industries
that synthesized or manufactured chemicals.
In response to the widespread economic-development
obstacles posed by urban brownfields, the EPA announced
its original Brownfields Action Agenda in January 1995.
Brownfields were an adaptation from the EPA cleanup-
enforcement-driven pattern over to economic and environ-
mental local collaboration with support from the EPA. The
impetus to bring about this change came from several large
Midwest and East Coast cities that led the movement to revi-
talize their abandoned industrial areas with funding from
federal and private sources. Initially, both the EPA and the
John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundations funded a
series of brownfield forums in Chicago in the early 1990s.
These forums developed a set of brownfield redevelopment
principles that have been adopted, adapted, and standardized.
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