Encyclopedia of Environmental Science and Engineering, Volume I and II

NATURAL SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT 745

Cost Cost is often a significant factor in selecting the type of

treatment system for a particular application. Unfortunately,

the availability of reliable cost data for wetland treatment

systems is limited. The cost of wetland treatment systems

varies depending on wastewater characteristics, the type of

wetland system, and the type of bottom preparation required.

Subsurface flow systems are generally more expensive

than free water surface systems. It has been reported that

the Tennesee Valley Authority (TVA) wetland construc-

tion costs ranged from $3.58/m^2 to $32.03/m^2.^22 Estimates

are that the construction, operation, and maintenance costs

of constructed wetland systems are quite competitive with

other wastewater treatment options.

REFERENCES

1. Mitsch, W.J. and J.G. Gosselink, Wetlands, Van Nostrand and Reinhold
   Company, New York, 1993.


2. Reed, S.C., E.J. Middlebrooks, and R.W. Crites, Natural Systems for
   Waste Management and Treatment, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, NY,
   1988.


3. Qasim, S.R., Wastewater Treatment Plants: Planning, Design, and
   Operation, Technomic Publishing Company, Inc. PA, 1994.


4. Middlibrooks, E.J., C.H. Middlebrooks, J.H. Reynolds, G.Z. Watters,
   S.C. Reed, and D.B. George, Wastewater Stabilization Lagoon Design,
   Performance and Upgrading, Macmillan Book Co., New York, 1982.


5. US Environmental Protection Agency, Process Design Manual for
   Land Treatment of Municipal Wastewater, Office of Water Program
   Operation, EPA/COE/USDA, EPA 625/1-77-008, October 1977.


6. Sanks, R.L. and T. Asano (Eds.), Land Treatment and Disposal of
   Municipal and Industrial Wastewater, Ann Arbor Science Publisher,
   Ann Arbor, Mich. 1976.


7. Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal
   and Reuse, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, NY, 1991.


8. Bastian, R.K. and S.C. Reed (Eds.), Aquaculture Systems for Waste-
   water Treatment: Seminar Proceedings and Engineering Assessment,
   US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Program Opera-
   tions, Municipal Construction Division, EPA 430/9-80-006, Washing-
   ton, D.C. 20460, September 1979.


9. Hammer, D.A., Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment, Lewis
   Publishers, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1989.


10. Water Pollution Control Federation, Natural Systems for Wastewater
    Treatment, Manual of Practice No. FD-16, Water Pollution Control
    Federation, 1990.
    11. Dinges, R., Natural Systems for Water Pollution Control, Van Nostrand
    and Reinhold Company, New York, 1982.
    12. Reed, S.C., Constructed Wetlands for Industrial Wastewaters, Presented
    at Purdue Industrial Waste Conference, May 10, 1993, Purdue University,
    West Lafayette, IN.
    13. Moshiri, G.A., Constructed Wetlands for Water Quality Improvement,
    Lewis Publishers, Florida, 1993.
    14. US Environmental Protection Agency, Subsurface Flow Constructed
    Wetlands Conference, Proceeding of a conference at University of
    Texas at El Paso, August 16 and 17, El Paso Texas, 1993.
    15. Stephenson, M., G. Turner, P. Pope, J. Colt, A. Knight, and G. Tcho-
    banoglous, The Use and Potential of Aquatic Species for Wastewater
    Treatment, Appendix A, The Environmental Requirements of Aquatic
    Plants, Publication No. 65, California State Water Resources Control
    Board, Sacramento, California, 1980.
    16. Tchobanoglous, G., Aquatic Plant Systems for Wastewater Treatment:
    Engineering Considerations, in Aquatic Plants for Water Treatment and
    Resource Recovery. K.R. Reedy and W.H. Smiths, Eds. Magnolia Pub-
    lishing, Orlando, FL, 1987, pp. 27–48.
    17. US Environmental Protection Agency, Subsurface Flow Constructed
    Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment — A Technology Assessment, Office
    of Water, EPA 832R-93-001, July 1993.
    18. Cueto, A.J., Development of Criteria for the Design and Construction of
    Engineered Aquatic Treatment Units in Texas, Chapter 9, Constructed
    Wetlands for Water Quality Improvements, G.A. Moshiri, Lewis Pub-
    lishers, FL 1993, pp. 99–105.
    19. Hammer, D.A., B.P. Pullin, and J.T. Watson, Constructed Wetlands for
    Livestock Waste Treatment, National Nonpoint Conference, St. Louis,
    MO, April 1989.
    20. US Environmental Protection Agency, Design Manual on Constructed
    Wetlands and Aquatic Plant Systems for Municipal Wastewater Treat-
    ment, Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental
    Research Information, Cincinnati, OH, September 1988.
    21. Brix, H., Treatment of Wastewater in the Rhizosphere of Wetland
    Plants—The Root-Zone Method, Water Science Technology, Vol. 19,
    1987, pp. 107–118.
    22. Brodie, G.A., D.A. Hammer, and D.A. Tomljanovich, Constructed
    Wetlands for Acid Drainage Control in the Tennessee Valley, in Mine
    Drainage and Surface Mine Reclamation, Bureau of Mines Information
    Circular 9183, 1988, pp. 325–331.

MOHAMMED S. KAMAL

SYED R. QASIM

The University of Texas at Arlington

C014_001_r03.indd 745C014_001_r03.indd 745 11/18/2005 10:44:18 AM11/18/2005 10:44:18 AM