assisted by Osanyin, the orisa who controls 201
roots and leaves and knows their application in
curing various illnesses. Ifa, which is Yoruba’s
most widespread system, employs the use of palm
nuts or divine chain. The divination systems pro-
vide confidence and certainty in a world popu-
lated by mischievous forces. Orunmila has its
own priesthood under the Babalawo, “father of
secrets,” or a diviner who prognosticates the past
and future. The Babalawo doubles as a diviner, a
healer, and a manufacturer of charms, although
these roles maybe separated in some cases. She or
he is believed to have the means of ascertaining
the causes of ailments, misfortunes, and death.
The Babalawo uses palm nuts and verses in the
complex odu system of divination to prescribe
appropriate sacrifices and rituals for his clients.
The Healing ProcessThe prescription by the healer, diviner, medicine
man, and the use of the medicinal concoctions by
patients for therapeutic or prophylactic means are
central to traditional healing systems. The common
method of treating patients consists of an enormous
variety of medical preparations made of mixtures
of roots, leaves, barks, fruits, and parts of animals
and birds. The objects are often accompanied by
incantations that imbue the medicinal preparation
with power. The specialist consults the oracle and
invokes the appropriate deity to give potency to the
concoction before it is dished out to clients. In some
cases, rituals and sacrifices are enacted to the
appropriate spirit or divinity to sustain the
immutability of such power. The treatment may
include an herbal potion with pharmaceutical prop-
erties to deal with the symptoms. The medical
preparations are administered orally, in ointments,
by bathing, or through scarification. Although the
healer/medicine man is versed in the collection of
recipes and their preparation, such medical skills
and knowledge are never revealed to clients.
The gradual loss of orally transmitted
epistemologies of healing; the influence of
Christianity, Islam, and other religious traditions;
and the introduction of Western medical systems
are inhibiting indigenous healing practices in some
respects. However, traditional healing systems and
the role of healers, diviners, and medicine men
continue to occupy a significant place in modern
African societies, especially in a context where
governments are incapable of providing adequate
medical facilities for its people.Afe AdogameSeealsoHealth; MedicineFurther Readings
Jacobson-Widding, A., & Westerlund, D. (Eds.). (1989).
Culture,Experience and Pluralism:Essays on African
Ideas of Illness and Healing. Stockholm, Sweden:
Almqvist & Wiksell.
Turner, E. (1998).Experiencing Ritual:A New
Interpretation of African Healing. Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania Press.
Yoder, P. S. (Ed.). (1982).African Health and Healing
Systems:Proceedings of a Symposium. Los Angeles:
Crossroads.HEALTH
Health in the African context refers to a state of
positive mental and physical well-being. It is a state
of normalcy marked by the absence of disease. The
World Health Organization holds that health is a
state of complete physical, mental, and social well-
being and not merely the absence of disease or
infirmity. Health may also be considered as a posi-
tive state necessary for the maintenance of physical
and spiritual well-being. From this perspective,
Africans see health as the normal state in which
individuals can attain their best, thereby contribut-
ing toward the greater social good. Health is also
understood as a state of well-being. Well-being
refers to the state of fulfillment whereby both the
individual and society are spared from mental and
physical discomfort and enjoy peace of mind. This
entry looks at illness or the absence of physical
health, touches on social and emotional health,
and looks at contemporary health care.Kinds of Illness
Health can also be explained in terms of its oppo-
site state—illness. Illness is regarded as the
absence of good health, an abnormal state that310 Health