today. Although he lived during the period of the
III Dynasty, about 2900 BC, he was inducted to
the community of gods Kemet during the Persian
period dating from 525 BC. This illustrates the
longevity of Imhotep’s influence and contribu-
tions to ancient Kemetic civilization. Prior to his
induction into the community of gods, Imhotep
was referred to as a significant contributor; thus,
he took on the status of a demigod. As a
demigod, he received semidivine worship and
reverence.
Imhotep Son of Ptah is elevated to a deity due to
the great contribution he made toward medicine,
architecture, and as a sage. During the period of
525, Imhotep was venerated as a God and devel-
oped a substantial following. His philosophy of life
was reflected in the form of beautiful structures
and wise proverbs. His wisdom was alluded to in
inscriptions of holy temples, pyramids, and other
monuments commemorating significant figures.
His work in the field of medicine remains relevant
to current tradition and helped to sustain a healthy
society. His name was mentioned thousands of
years after his death, making him an important
figure in African history and religion.
Justin GammageSeealsoChaminuka
Further Readings
Asante, M. K. (2000).The Egyptian Philosophers:
Imhotep to Akhenaten. Chicago: AAI Publishers.
Asante, M. K. (2007).The History of Africa: The Quest
for Eternal Harmony. New York: Routledge.
Posener, G. (1962).A Dictionary of Egyptian
Civilization. London: Methuen.
Wilkinson, R. (2003).The Complete Gods and
Goddesses of Ancient Egypt. Cairo: American
University Press.
INCARNATION
The term incarnation descends from a Latin
action word, incarn, which literally means
“embody in flesh.” The term figuratively employs
fleshas a manifestation of life and is therefore
symbolic surrogation.Incarn, when employed in
the resultant term, incarnation, more accurately
means “to bring to life.” The manifestation of this
concept is widespread in Africa, and documented
proof of its anteriority to its use in Latin is
resident in the Mdw Ntr (called hieroglyphics by
the Greeks) of the Pyramid and Coffin Texts and
in the many hieratic scrolls occupying museums
throughout the world.
In African religion, there are several varieties of
incarnation that share some basic similarities:- Through incarnation, spiritual forces from
ancestors through supreme deities can potentially
enter a human being temporarily or for a lifetime. - Deities and ancestors are allowed to enter and
be active in the visible part of the world and
return to the invisible part of the world. - Extraordinary human beings can become
incarnated deities. - Ordinary human beings can become reincarnated
ancestors depending on the favorable balance of
their conscious behavior in the visible life. - Human beings and deities do not occupy flesh
simultaneously.
Incarnation, in the form divination, is also prac-
ticed by African populations that reside outside of
the motherland. Such practices are Africanisms
that remain with African descendents and neigh-
boring populations impacted by their culture in the
Caribbean and South and North America. After a
brief look at the puzzle incarnation seems to pose
for Westerners, this entry turns to the origins of
this concept in ancient Egypt, describing its devel-
opment there before turning to other expressions
of incarnation in African religion.The Christian Debate
Much discussion on incarnation is framed around
the debate within Christology concerning the
nature of Jesus as deity, human, or both. African
orientations and theologies have avoided this
conundrum by making the world continuous,
meaning no outside but divided between visible
and invisible.
The debate in Christology over Jesus’ nature
broke down along Northern and Southern orien-
tations. Africans, Asians, and Europeans were on338 Incarnation