Idowu, E. B. (1975).Olodumare:God in Yoruba Belief.
London: Longman.
Mbiti, J. S. (1976).African Religions and Philosophy.
London: Heinemann.
SANGOMA
A sangoma is a highly respected healer among
the Zulu who diagnoses, prescribes, and often
performs the rituals to heal a person physically,
mentally, emotionally, or spiritually. Often the
sangoma addresses all of these realms in the heal-
ing process, which usually involves divination,
herbal medicine, and specific, customized rituals
to cure the illness and restore well-being.
God, being rarely involved in human affairs, is
not a common cause of illness (isifo). However,
God delegated much of its administrative func-
tions to the ancestors (Amadlozi). The latter,
therefore, are actively and constantly involved
in the world of the living. As a result, they are fre-
quently suspected of being responsible for sending
isifo to the living. They do this not out of wicked-
ness or caprice, but to punish the living for not
abiding by the ethical standards of the community
and to remind them of their imperative duty to
live a moral life. Failure, for instance, to conduct
certain important rituals or violation of a taboo
may result in the ancestors’ wrath, manifested
in the form of sickness. One is then in a state of
spiritual pollution and imbalance, which must be
redressed. Once divination has established the
exact cause of illness, certain rituals will be con-
ducted to appease the ancestors, thus restoring
health. The behavior that angered the ancestors
will also, of course, not be engaged in again.
In addition to the ancestors, witches and sor-
cerers have the ability and desire to harm others.
They may house evil spirits, use medicines, take
on animal (or other) forms, and, generally speak-
ing, resort to several possible agents to hurt other
people. Witchcraft is taken quite seriously and is
dreaded, given the devastation it may cause in a
person’s life. As a result, people often take precau-
tionary measures to circumvent evil attempts at
harming them. They may engage in rituals whose
express purpose is to appeal to the ancestors for
protection against witchcraft. They may also
choose to wear protective devices—amulets. The
latter are known asAma-khubaloand are often
fragments of barks or roots tied around the neck
and sucked on. When witchcraft has already
struck, specific ngoma rituals, relying heavily on
the use of medicinal plants known for their spir-
itual cleansing powers, will be conducted to
neutralize the malevolent forces unleashed by the
witch or sorcerer. The expected result is the return
of harmony, peace, and health in the life of the
person affected.
The sangoma is the most senior of the various
traditional healers in South Africa. These healers
can inherit or choose their professions. However,
the sangoma must be called by Spirit. Because san-
gomas are called, there are no restrictions on gen-
der imposed by society; however, approximately
90% of sangomas are female. Sangomas, unlike
other healers, or malevolent sorcerers, must learn
ethnic and communal history and mythology. In
this way, they are healers as well as keepers of
sacred knowledge. The calling denotes an ances-
tral and cultural responsibility and is initiated
usually by an illness,ukutwasa,which is accom-
panied by strange dreams and visions. This dis-
ruption in the daily life of the person causes him
or her to seek the services of various healers.
Because of the availability of Western medicine in
South Africa, many twasa, or “apprentices
touched by illness,” often try in vain to be cured
by modern medicine before ending up with a san-
goma who can correctly diagnoseukutwasa.This
begins their initiation period which can last from
months to years depending on the circumstances.Initiation
In the case of Credo Mutwa, an internationally
recognized sangoma, the initiation period lasted 2
years as he made a gradual and at times reluctant
transition from his Christian upbringing into the
way of life of a sangoma. During this time, he
would perform a series of rituals and tasks that
would not only cure his body but teach him about
the healing power of herbs and traditional medi-
cine as well as tune his body to perceive the subtle
spiritual energies vital to the work of a sangoma.
His days would start before sunrise with alternat-
ing plunges into cold streams followed immedi-
ately by hot steam baths. Dance sessions in theSangoma 585