nephew, succeeded to the leadership of the Songo.
They fought with the Ngolas and the Pende
and were brought under the hegemony of the
Portuguese. Like the Jaga, who lived as a vassal
people under the Portuguese, the Songo did the
same thing until they started to move beyond the
influence of the whites. After the death of Kasanje
in 1616, the Songo led a new campaign against
the Ngola and Matamba. Involved in the slave
trade, the Songo established trading stations with
the Portuguese. Their culture became distorted
and a mixture of Western and African ideals. With
the intense slave trade activities, the culture of
Songo was brutalized.
Ritual and Spiritual ManifestationsThe major manifestations of rituals and ceremonies
highlight the value of the ancestors in the develop-
ment of culture. If there are problems such as physi-
cal disorders, psychological illnesses, and
commercial misfortune, then the Songo seek to
know the invisible force that caused the disruption.
The remedy to this condition is through sacrifice,
offerings, and ceremonies dedicated to the ancestors.
If these things are done, then the misfortune could be
expected to vanish if the proper protocols have been
carried out. Among the Songo, the traditional priests
and priestesses are called on to oversee the precise rit-
uals necessary to bring about a reordering of the cos-
mos. Thus, despite the inroads made into the
character of the traditional ways of the Songo by
their early interactions with the Portuguese, one still
discovers their moral capacity to create balance in
their society because of the continuing commitment
to ancestral values.
Ana Monteiro-FerreiraSee alsoAncestors
Further Readings
Abbot, P. (1988).Modern African Wars. London: Osprey.
Asante, M. K. (2007).The History of Africa. London:
Routledge.
Birmingham, D. (1983).History of Central Africa(Vol. 1).
London: Longman.
Brittain, V. (1998).Death of Dignity:Angola’s Civil
War. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press.
Guimaraes, F. A. (1998).The Origins of the Angolan
Civil War:Foreign Intervention. Basingstoke, UK:
Macmillan.
Maier, K. (1996).Angola:Promises or Lies. London:
Sherif.SOPDU
Sopdu, a local falcon god, is referred to as a war
god in ancient Egyptian religion. Called “Smiter
of the Asiatics,” “Sharp-Toothed One,” “Eastern
Horus,” “Lord of the East,” and “Great of
Strength,” Sopdu was thought to keep watch
over the eastern delta lands of Egypt and the sur-
rounding areas. The ancient Egyptians believed
that his protective force extended across the east-
ern desert routes, an area between the Nile and
the Red Sea and the Asiatic lands and those areas
northeast of Egypt. Sopdu guarded the borders
of the delta from foreign invaders and in this
capacity was also referred to as the border god.
This ancient Egyptian god was also known by
the names Sopd, Soped, Sopedu, Sopedu-Horus,
and Septu.Origins
The primary cult of Sopdu resided in the
ancient city of Per-Sopdu, which translated to
mean “House of Sopdu” during the 22nd
dynasty in the 20th Lower Egyptian nome. The
ancient city of Per-Sopdu is presently the village
of Saft el-Hinna in the eastern delta. The remains
of a monument dedicated to Sopdu by King
Nectanebo I of the 30th dynasty were discov-
ered there. King Nectanebo I was responsible
for the development and restoration of many
Egyptian temples erected to the gods. Although
Sopdu was the deity of Per-Sopdu, the priest
associated with him could be found at several
Egyptian sites, most notably Serabit el-Khadim.
General ancient Egyptian religious practices
consisted of the cult providing their gods with
necessary food, drink, and clothing. Members
of cults also performed rituals of purification to
sustain the gods.
Ancient Egyptians tended to the gods, believing
that, in return, favor would be given to themSopdu 623