the final policy decisions in this way. The European Commissioners
are appointed for fixed periods from member states, but are supposed
to act as a single body from a European perspective. Each com-
missioner heads a part of the European Civil Service. Jointly they
propose legislation to the European Parliament and to the Council of
Ministers and are responsible for the execution of policies decided by
them.
The legislative process is uniquely complicated. It starts with
extensive consultation by the commissioners who may call upon
formal advisory councils including employers, trade unionists and
others from all over Europe. After approval by the European Parlia-
ment through an elaborate committee system and in full session,
proposals go to the Council of Ministers. At present most proposals
require a ‘qualified majority’ of votes to be approved (requiring the
support of most of the larger states). Most important European
legislation takes the form of ‘directives’ which require national
parliaments to pass national legislation to implement them by a
certain date, thus effectively adding a further stage to the process.
Should national legislation not be sufficient to implement the
directive then the Commission would have to take the national
government concerned before the European Court. In the event of
disagreement between Commission, Parliament and Council, then
measures may shuttle between them and special majorities may be
required to override recalcitrant parties.
In many, but not all, matters the Council of Ministers has the final
say. In this respect the Community is like a conventional inter-
national organisation. But in having a directly elected parliament
with substantial budgetary powers and a Court of Justice with
authority to decide appeals from national courts on the interpretation
of Community law, it is in a similar position to a federal state.
Since the Maastricht agreement of 1991, these ‘Community’
arrangements for co-operation on a wide range of economic matters
are supplemented by the so-called second and third ‘pillars’ of co-
operation through direct intergovernment agreements on a common
foreign and security policy and on justice and home affairs (e.g. co-
operation to catch international drug rings and illegal immigration).
The three pillars together constitute the European Union.
In the long run, crucial technological developments are likely to
require massive investments, probably by multinational companies162 STATES