birth and rebirth but remains alive. Most Shaivite
traditions, and the VEDANTA of SHANKARA, accept
the possibility of jivanmukti (living liberation).
Other Hindu traditions, such as VAISHNAVISM, do
not accept the concept; they insist that full libera-
tion occurs only at death. Neither Jains nor Sikhs
believe in jivanmukti.
Historically, many of the earlier philosophies
of India, such as SAMKHYA, had no place for the
idea. A strict reading of YOGA SUTRA would not
allow for it either.
Further reading: Andrew O. Fort, Jivanmukti in Transfor-
mation: Embodied Liberation in advaita and Neo-Vedanta
(Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998).
jivatman See VEDANTA.
jnana
Jnana (from the root jna, “to know”) literally
means “knowledge” but is better translated as
“gnosis” or “realization.” Specifically, it is the
knowledge of the unity between the highest real-
ity, or BRAHMAN, and the individual self, or JIVATMAN.
The role of jnana is developed in the philosophy
of the UPANISHADS and most clearly outlined in the
ADVAITA (non-dualist) philosophy of SHANKARA.
Much thought and writing have focused on
the nature of jnana in Indian tradition. Some see
it as a cognitive function: once one understands
the truth of the unity of brahman and the self
intellectually, that is enough. Others require a
realization of a mystic sort. VEDANTA has often
been characterized as interested only in gaining
jnana, but it has many paths that stress BHAKTI
or devotion as the first step on the path toward
the ultimate. Jnana yoga is one of the three major
yogas mentioned in the BHAGAVAD GITA.
Further reading: S. N. Dasgupta, History of Indian
Philosophy, vols. 1 and 2 (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass,
1975).
Jnanasambanthar See SAMBANTHAR.
jnana yoga See BHAGAVAD GITA.
jnanedriya See SAMKHYA.
Jnaneshvara (1275–1296) poet-saint
Jnaneshvara was a Vaishnavite (see VAISHNAVISM)
poet-saint from Maharashtra, who wrote hymns
of praise to VITHOBA and RUKMINI, the Maha-
rashtran forms of KRISHNA and RADHA who are
worshipped at Pandharpur. He is most famous
for his commentary on the BHAGAVAD GITA writ-
ten in old Marathi, a beloved and revered text
in Maharashtra. It is said that Jnaneshvara died
at the age of 22, at Alandi on the Krishna River.
This is now an important pilgrimage site; his
shrine is visited there at the time of the poet’s
death in November.Further reading: P. V. Bobde, trans., Garland of Divine
Flowers: Selected Devotional Lyrics of Saint Jnanesvara
(Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1987); Manu Subedar,
trans., Gita, the Mother: Commentary by Dhyaneshwar
Maharaj (New Delhi: Kalyani, 1972).Jyoti, Swami Amar (1928–2001) Indian guru
and ashram founder
Swami Amar Jyoti was a humanitarian activist,
who founded Jyoti Ashram, Sacred Mountain
Ashram, the Desert Ashram, and the Truth Con-
sciousness movement. Born in northwest India
on May 6, 1928, in a small town close to the
banks of the Indus River, Swami Amar Jyoti was
named Rama by his parents. As a child he was
interested in science, math, writing, cycling,
drama, and sports. The partition of India in 1947
interrupted his college education, causing him
to transfer to a university in Bombay (Mumbai).
Just a few months prior to his graduation he leftJyoti, Swami Amar 215 J