Further reading: Cornelia Dimmitt and J. A. B. van
Buitenen, Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the
Sanskrit Puranas (Philadelphia: Temple University
Press, 1978); E. Washburn Hopkins, Epic Mythology
(Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1986); W. J. Wilkins, Hindu
Mythology, Vedic and Puranic, 2d ed. (Calcutta: Rupa,
1973).
Kashi Church Foundation See JAYA SAT I
BHAGAVATI, MA.
Kashmiri Shaivism (est. ninth century)
Kashmiri SHAIVISM includes the philosophies and
practices of the ADVAITA (non-dual) Shaivite tradi-
tions that flourished in Kashmir from approx-
imately the ninth to the 13th centuries C.E.
Kashmiri Shaivism describes ultimate reality as
Paramashiva, or supreme Shiva, and teaches that
nothing exists that is not one with Paramashiva.
All of reality, with all of its diversity and fluctua-
tion, is the play of this single principle. The two
aspects of this single reality are inseparably united:
SHIVA and SHAKTI. Shiva is the self-luminous, static
consciousness, and Shakti is the dynamic, blissful
power of awareness. Through their union, the
universe is constantly established, sustained, and
withdrawn.
Kashmiri Shaivism also teaches that Para-
mashiva is the true nature and Self of every
human being. Through self-effort and divine
grace individuals can know both their Self and
the world around them as supreme Shiva. A being
who lives with the constant experience of this is
jivanmukta, liberated in this lifetime.
Within Kashmiri Shaivism, the most crucial
element of this journey to liberation is the relation-
ship between the GURU and the disciple. The dis-
ciple receives SHAKTIPAT, the descent of divine grace
or power, from the guru. This essential initiation
awakens the dormant spiritual energy within the
individual called KUNDALINI Shakti, and ultimately
leads to the realization of Paramashiva.
The earliest texts of Kashmiri Shaivism have
no known human authors and are considered
revealed sacred texts. According to tradition, in
the ninth century C.E. Shiva revealed to Vasugupta
the Shiva Sutra, a text composed of aphorisms that
presents the early teachings of Kashmiri Shaivism.
The Spanda Karika, whose authorship is attributed
to either Vasugupta himself or his disciple Kalat-
tabhatta, expands upon the teachings in the Shiva
Sutra. In particular, the Spanda Karika describes
the nature of Paramashiva as spanda, the divine
pulsation or vibration. Paramashiva’s nature is to
expand and contract, and thereby to emanate and
withdraw the universe on both a cosmic and a
mundane level. A disciple can thus realize Shiva
as his or her own nature by perceiving vibration as
part of his or her own experience.
Somananda and his disciple Utpaladeva
developed Kashmiri Shaivism further by estab-
lishing the teaching of pratyabhijna, the recogni-
tion of Shiva as one’s own Self. They describe
the experience of liberation as this recognition.
Somananda first introduced this teaching in his
work Soma Drishti, and Utpaladeva systemati-
cally presented it in his writings, including the
Pratyabhijnakarika.
Kashmiri Shaivism reached its creative climax
with the teachings of ABHINAVAGUPTA and his dis-
ciple Kshemaraja in the 10th and 11th centuries.
In his magnum opus, Tantraloka, Abhinavagupta
encompasses almost every aspect of Kashmiri
Shaivism and gives the most sophisticated and
comprehensive expression of its teachings. Ksh-
emaraja continued his work and made Kashmiri
Shaivism more accessible to wider audiences
through commentaries and digests.
Kashmiri Shaivism has continued to influence
and inspire people in India and throughout the
world. Leading modern exponents include Swami
LAKSHMANJOO (1907–91), who was raised and
taught in the oral tradition of Kashmir, and Swami
MUKTANANDA (1908–82), who traveled through-
out the world sharing the teachings of Kashmiri
Shaivism.Kashmiri Shaivism 229 J