and died, it is said, at an advanced age in Brijbi-
hara, some miles southeast of Srinagar.
Her verses in the old Kashmiri language
constitute a major contribution to the somewhat
limited Kashmiri literature. They reveal a mystic
perception that the notion of a god with character-
istics and form, approaching a monistic absolute
that comprehends infinity, both visible and invis-
ible. She says:
In that place not even Shiva reigns supreme
Nor the Shakti that belongs to him
Only is the Unknown, like a dream,
There pursuing a hidden swayFurther reading: R. N. Kaul, Kashmir’s Mystic Poetess,
Lalla Ded, Alias, Lalla Arifa (New Delhi: S. Chand,
1999); Swami Muktananda, trans., Lalleshwari: Spiri-
tual Poems by a Great Siddha Yogini (South Fallsburg,
N.Y.: SYDA, 1981); Jaishree Kak Odin, The Other Shore:
Lalla’s Life and Poetry (New Delhi: Vitasta, 1999); B. N.
Parimoo, trans., The Ascent of Self: A Re-Interpretation of
the Mystical Poetry of Lalla Ded (Delhi: Motilal Banar-
sidass, 1978); B. N. Parimoo, Lalleshwari (New Delhi:
National Book Trust, India, 1987).
Lanka See RAMAYANA.
Laws of Manu (c. 200)
The Laws of Manu is a seminal text in Indian
social history. It gives greatest attention to the
social obligations of BRAHMINS, whose supremacy
in the social order is assumed, but it also outlines
the obligations of rulers and other castes. It was
the first of many systematizations of Hindu social
law.
The book begins with the history of the
world and the creation by the divine being of
the social order, with the Brahmins at the top.
It then outlines the elements of VEDIC education
that are required in the BRAHMACHARYA or student
stage of life. It gives an idealized description of
the householder stage of life, dealing with mar-
riage, children, ceremonies for ancestors, virtues
such as generosity and merit, and a listing of the
permitted occupations for a twice-born person,
a person of the three top castes. Among other
topics are the acceptance of food from various
people, the types of foods that can or cannot
be eaten, and things that will pollute a Brahmin
by contact. It also discusses the forest dweller’s
(VANAPRASTHA’s) duties and behavior that would
be taken up when the householder reached that
stage of life.
Two chapters deal extensively with the proper
conduct of kings. There is a chapter on women
that has become notorious for its call for their
complete submission to men, and other sections
on issues of inheritance and kingly justice. The
book outlines the four-CASTE system and discusses
the various mixed of castes. It has a chapter
on restitution for various crimes; a lower-caste
person is to be punished more severely than an
upper-caste person. Finally it discusses issues of
transmigration and KARMA.Further reading: Wendy Doniger, with Brian K. Smith,
The Laws of Manu (London: Penguin Books, 1991);
Urmila Rustagi and Sudesh Narang, Manu/Manu Smrti:
An Appraisal (Delhi: J. P., 1995).Lekhraj, Dada See BRAHMA KUMARIS.
lila
A common notion in Indian tradition is that there
is no logical “reason” for things as they are in the
universe; everything is merely the lila (play) of
the divinity. This term is used only in association
with a deity who can be seen as overseeing all of
the universe. This would most often be VISHNU (or
one of his incarnations), SHIVA, or the great GOD-
DESS. Any such divinity will be said to have his or
her divine lila.lila 259 J