Samkhya (Sankhya)
Samkhya is one of the six orthodox systems of
Hinduism that were first developed in ancient
times. It is traditionally believed to have origi-
nated with the sage KAPILA (c. 500 B.C.E.); its
most authoritative text is the Samkhya Karika of
Ishvarakrishna (c. 200 C.E.). Today the system has
few adherents, and many of its ideas are preserved
in YOGA traditions, including modern-day HATHA
YOGA. (The word samkhya means “enumerate,”
a reference to the precise categories within the
philosophy.)
Samkhya was dualist: the everyday world of
matter and the world of the soul or self were con-
sidered to be two completely separate and distinct
realms. Early Samkhya was nontheistic; it did not
include any divine being or god.
In Samkhya PRAKRITI—nature or the manifest
universe—was understood to be eternal. It had
always existed and would always exist, though it
might from time to time contract into an unmani-
fest form, awaiting the next manifestation. The
selves or souls, which were also eternal but shared
nothing in common with nature, were called
PURUSHAS. There was an infinite number of them,
and they were all separate and distinct from one
another.
Each self or soul contained an inexplicable
magnetism, which drew prakriti to collect or
aggregate around it and give it life, a body, and
birth. KARMA, the actions committed in the previ-
ous birth, would determine each new aggregation.
In spiritual terms, this was seen as a constantly
renewed trap for the self; the purpose of Samkhya
was to show a way to escape the trap.
With the right state of mind, one could move
one’s point of view above the whirl of nature so
that one’s consciousness could focus on the soul
itself and not be distracted by the pull of phenom-
ena. The earthly realm of elements was considered
to be characterized by inertia (tamas); the organs
of action such as hands and feet were seen to con-
stitute a realm of self-binding action (rajas); but
the senses, mind, and intellect pointed toward the
realm of purity (SATTVA). These three aspects of
nature, the GUNAS, were experienced only in com-
bination, with one or another mode predominat-
ing at any one moment.
MEDITATION could help one rise above the
gunas or intertwined characteristics of nature.
Intellect, or higher mind (BUDDHI), was the pur-
est aspect of the human being and so was used
as an instrument for the transcendence of matter.
But even mind needed to be left behind for total
release. Release occurred when the soul was freed
from the body into its own self-reflective con-
sciousness.
Yoga soon emerged as the practical way to
realize the ideals of Samkhya. PATANJALI’s YOGA
SUTRA showed the practices that could be used
and delineated the various stages of the process.
By the first century C.E. the system was practically
combined into one, and called Samkhya-Yoga.Further reading: S. N. Dasgupta, History of Indian Phi-
losophy, Vol. 1 (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1975); Ger-
ald Larson and Ram Shankar Bhattacharya, Samkhya: A
Dualist Tradition in Indian Philosophy (Princeton, N.J.:
Princeton University Press, 1987); Heinrich Zimmer,
Philosophies of India (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univer-
sity Press, 1974).samsara
Samsara is the round or cycle of birth and rebirth
that all beings are subject to in the Hindu world-
view. By extension it is often used to designate the
world, where birth and rebirth are the human des-
tiny. The term is also used in JAINISM, Buddhism,
and SIKHISM.
The negative evaluation of samsara, so preva-
lent in Hindu belief, began to color the ancient
VEDIC tradition only in the era of UPANISHADS,
some of which begin to show attitudes that would
directly lead to the development of world-deny-
ing philosophies. The Vedic MANTRAS themselves
are life-affirming and envision a peaceful, joyful
heaven as the result of merit in one’s life. Theresamsara 379 J