the male principle, especially in the later medieval
tantric traditions, is considered to be the quies-
cent, receptive force. In the Shakta tantric world-
view, the masculine principle is a complementary
force to the all-pervading female power. “Shiva
without Shakti is but a corpse, it is said.”
Central to Shakta theology is recognition of
the interrelationships among the agricultural,
lunar, and female reproductive cycles. All of
existence is conceived as the power, wisdom,
knowledge, and action of a Great Goddess. Shak-
tas perform magical rites in order to ensure the
continuation of both humans’ and Earth’s fertil-
ity. Stones, trees, water, and iconic and aniconic
images all are worshipped as embodiments of
Shakti or the power of Goddess. Ritual practices
also focus on placating deities in order to prevent
natural disasters and illness. To a Shakta, the mys-
teries of death as well as birth are considered the
Goddess’s domain, stemming from the belief that
we all originate from and will eventually return to
the great Mother Goddess.
From earliest times Shaktas have worshipped
deities in multiple as well as singular form; they
believe that the collectives are ultimately just dif-
ferent aspects or manifestations of the supreme
Goddess herself. These deities have strong asso-
ciations with the natural and human landscape:
trees, mountains, hills, bodies of water, and
the female body—in particular the sex organs
and sexual fluids. Yakshis and YAKSHAS (tree and
nature spirits), Grahanis, Matrikas, and Yoginis
(goddesses and semigoddesses who are always
depicted with animal totems/vehicles) embody
both benevolent and malevolent qualities. These
deities are connected to the threshold experiences
of women’s existence: childbirth, menstruation,
sex, illness, and death.
Devotees share the belief in the great goddess,
Mahadevi, who assumes many forms to defeat
any forces that are threatening the natural equi-
librium of the Earth and cosmos. Each of these
forms carries benevolent as well as malevolent
qualities and all have crucial roles in the birth,
fruition, preservation, and inevitable destruction
of existence.
Within the Brahminic fold, Shaktas today wor-
ship goddesses such as PARVATI, Gauri, Ganga, LAK-
SHMI, SARASVATI, and Uma for their pacific natures.
At the same time the wrathful, often destructive
goddesses such as DURGA, KALI, CHAMUNDA, and
the Matrikas and Yoginis are propitiated, revered,
and especially held in awe.
Within the Shakta worldview all women are
regarded as inherently divine. The ebb and flow
of women’s menstrual cycles in accordance with
the 28-day lunar cycle are important to this tra-
dition. The potency of kula, menstrual blood or
other female fluids, plays a central role in rites and
practices. The blood is revered for its vibrational
potency and is offered to deities such as Kali,
Durga, and the Matrikas as a means to pacify as
well as worship.
Although in orthodox practices animal sac-
rifice has in some cases apparently replaced
menstrual blood offerings, no female animals are
offered to the deities. In many of the tantra texts
relevant to this tradition, one finds descriptions
of women that honor and revere their female
nature; for example: “Women are divinity, women
are vital breath. Women are goddess, women are
life. Be ever among women in thought.” This
is the nature of a Shakta. Contrary to the later
Brahminic traditions’ immaterial conception of
the universe as BRAHMAN, the Shakta views the
divinity as both immanent and transcendent.Further reading: Narendra Nath Bhattacharya, History
of the Shakta Religion (New Delhi: Munshiram Mano-
harial, 1996); ———, History of the Tantric Religion
(New Delhi: Manohar, 1999); Vidya Dehejia, Yogini Cult
and Temples: A Tantric Tradition (New Delhi: National
Museum, 1986); Jadunath Sinha, Shakta Monism: The
Cult of Shakti (Calcutta: Sinha Publishing House,
1966); David Gordon White, Kiss of the Yogini (Chicago
and London: University of Chicago Press, 2003); Sir
John Woodroffe, Sakti and Sakta: Essays and Addresses
(Madras: Ganesh, 1965).K 398 Shakta