the chants themselves, and a BRAHMANA, or com-
mentary. Both portions are considered SHRUTI, or
revelation.)
Within the Brahmana portion of the Vedas are
two classes of passages that later took the names
ARANYAKA and Upanishad. The Aranyaka portions
often closely resemble the Brahmana but often
contain esoteric interpretations of the Vedic ritu-
als. The further sections, sometimes within these
Aranyaka sections, were termed Upanishads. While
included in the Vedic literature, the Upanishads
were composed somewhat later, roughly in the sev-
enth to third centuries B.C.E., although they exist in
the same ancient literary SANSKRIT.
Upanishad in its literal definition means “to
sit down near.” They represented secret teachings
reserved for those who sat near their GURU in the
forest. They contain a wide range of material. Some
of it is indistinguishable from the rest of the Brah-
mana or Aranyaka, but other sections discuss the
creation and nature of the universe. Most often,
the discussions concern the BRAHMAN, or ultimate
reality; the ATMAN, the ultimate self or soul; or their
relationships with the individual self or soul.
In many places these Upanishads make clear
that the individual self, seen from the highest
consciousness, is nothing but the ultimate reality
in all its glory. The exact relationship between the
ultimate reality and the souls became the subject
of centuries of discussion and mystic insights into
the nature of things. The most commonly listed
Upanishads are ISHA, KENA, KAT H A, Prashna, Mun-
daka, MANDUKYA, TAITTARIYA, AITAREYA, CHANDO-
GYA, BRIHADARANYAKA, Pingala, and Jabala.
Further reading: S. M. Srinivas Chari, The Philosophy
of the Upanisads: A Study Based on the Evaluation of the
Comments of Samkara, Ramanuja, and Madhva (New
Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 2002); S. N. Dasgupta,
The History of Indian Philosophy. Vol. 1 (Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidas, 1975); S. Radhakrishnan, trans., The Phi-
losophy of the Upanisads (London: G. Allen & Unwin,
1935); ———, The Principal Upanishads (Atlantic
Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1994).Urvashi and Pururavas See APSARAS.
Ushas
Ushas is the Vedic goddess of the dawn. The
night goddess, Ratri, is often called her sister.
Some of the most beautiful hymns of the VEDAS
are addressed to Ushas. Sometimes she is seen
as the mother of the Sun god and sometimes his
wife. She travels in a shining chariot drawn by red
horses or cows.
She is seen as very beautiful, dressed in orna-
ments and fine raiments. She gives life and health
to all beings. She is called the “life of all life” and
the “breath of all breaths.” She is a great power
who revivifies Earth each day and makes all life
that we know possible.Further reading: Alfred Hillebrandt, Vedic Mythology.
Translated by Sreeramula Rajeswara Sarma. Vol. 1
(Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1990); W. J. Wilkins, Hindu
Mythology, Vedic and Puranic, 2d ed. (Bombay: Rupa,
1973).K 472 Urvashi and Pururavas