(mastery of the ritual details), vyakarana (SAN-
SKRIT grammar), nirukta (etymology or derivation
of Sanskrit words), chandas (prosody or verse
metrics), and jyotish (astronomy/astrology). The
adept had to know all these to be considered fully
educated.
Further reading: Klaus K. Klostermaier, A Survey of
Hinduism (Albany: State University of New York Press,
1994); Jagadguru Shankaracharya, The Vedas and Vedan-
gas (Kumbakonam: Sri Kamakoti Research Centre,
1988).
Vedanta
Vedanta, literally the end or conclusion (anta)
of the VEDA, is the most important philosophical
school in Indian tradition. It is a wide and capa-
cious field that includes those who adhere to a
strict non-dualist (ADVAITA) perspective, those who
believe in a non-dualism with certain reserva-
tions, and those who believe in the type of dual-
ism (DVAITA) that states that God and the human
soul will never be one.
The one basic requirement of Vedanta is that
it rest upon the three basic texts: the UPANISHADS,
the VEDANTA SUTRAS, and the BHAGAVAD GITA. Most
commonly known in both India and the West is
the Vedanta of SHANKARA, the seventh-century
philosophical savant. This Vedanta understands
that the world is illusory, M AYA, and only the
transcendent ultimate reality, the BRAHMAN, is real.
That brahman has no characteristics and does not
act in any way. It is a pure plenum or totality that
is sometimes characterized as infinite being (sat),
infinite consciousness (cit), and infinite bliss
(ANANDA). (See SAT-CHIT-ANANDA.)
A second type of Vedanta might best be
described as BHAKTI Vedanta or devotional Vedanta.
Here the oneness of the godhead is also under-
stood, but the world is seen to be real and perme-
ated by God in the form of VISHNU, usually, or
his incarnations RAMA or KRISHNA. (Vedantas that
emphasize SHIVA in this way are rare.) There is no
duality of soul, world, and God, but God is seen
as supreme and all other realities as subsidiary. It
is non-dualism with the reservation that the god-
head has supreme power to act.
Finally, there is the rare minority sect of
Vedanta championed by Sri MADHVA, who argues
that the soul, the world, and God are all separated
from each other eternally and will never be one.
All is dependent upon the radically transcendent
God.
In the Neo-Vedanta of the followers of RAMA-
KRISHNA, reality is still one, but “God” may be
characterized as “Allah” or “Christ” as well as in
the usual Hindu ways. Because of the power of
the word Vedanta, even systems like that of SRI
AUROBINDO that resemble the TANTRA will be char-
acterized as Vedanta. His followers have some-
times called his system Integral Vedanta.
All systems of Vedanta (except that of Aurobindo)
agree that the highest goal is to break the bonds of
KARMA and realize mukti, or liberation.Further reading: Surendranath Dasgupta, The History
of Indian Philosophy, 5 vols. (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas,
1975); Swami Tapasyananda, Bhakti Schools of Vedanta
(Lives and Philosophies of Ramanuja, Nimbarka, Madhva,
Vallabha and Chaitanya) (Madras: Sri Ramakrishna
Math, 1990).Vedanta Centre/Ananda Ashrama See
PARAMANANDA.Vedanta Societies/Ramakrishna Math
and Mission
The Vedanta Societies are part of a missionary
movement created by the monastic disciples of Sri
RAMAKRISHNA Paramahansa (1836–86), the Indian
saint of ADVAITA (non-dual) VEDANTA, who was
considered an incarnation of God. Ramakrishna’s
message was that truth can be found in all of the
world’s religions. The basic tenet of Vedanta is
that reality is non-dual and that one divine realityVedanta Societies/Ramakrishna Math and Mission 483 J