Further readings: J. A. B. van Buitenen, “The Large
Atman,” History of Religions 4 (1964): 103–114,
reprinted in L. Rocher, ed., Studies in Indian Literature
and Philosophy: Collected Articles of J. A. B. van Buitenen
(Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1988); Jan Feys, A=B: An
Inquiry into the Upanishads’ Basic Insight (Calcutta:
Firma KLM, 1976); Swami Muktananda, Reflections
of the Self (South Fallsburg, N.Y.: SYDA Foundation,
1980); H. G. Narahari, Atman in Pre-Upanisadic Vedic
Literature (Madras: Adyar Library, 1944); A. S. Ramana-
than, Vedic Concept of Atman (Jaipur: Rajasthan Patrika,
1997); Baldev Raj Sharma, The Concept of Atman in the
Principal Upanishads, in the Perspective of the Samhitas,
the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the Indian Philosophi-
cal Systems (New Delhi: Dinesh, 1972).
aum See OM.
Aurobindo, Sri (Aurobindo Ghose) (1872–
1950) philosopher sage of modern India and creator
of Integral Yoga
Aurobindo Ghose, later named Sri Aurobindo,
was one of the great sages of modern India. After
an influential political career in the cause of
Indian independence, he turned to the spiritual
and developed the very influential Integral Yoga
path, which combined practices from many differ-
ent historic Indian yogas.
Ghose was born on August 15, 1872, in the
Indian state of Bengal to a surgeon, Dr. Krish-
nadhan Ghose, and his wife, Swarnalata Devi.
His father aimed to turn his fourth child into
an Anglicized gentleman, giving him the name
Aurobindo Ackroyd (he later dropped his middle
name) and sending him at the age of seven to
a convent school in Darjeeling. Shortly thereaf-
ter he was packed off to Manchester, England,
where he was educated at home for five years
and isolated from “Indian” influences. In 1889
he entered Cambridge, where he distinguished
himself in Latin, Greek, and French. In 1893
he returned to India and joined Baroda Col-
lege, where he taught English and French and
eventually became vice principal. In 1901 he
married 14-year-old Mrinalini Bose, not long
after beginning his political activity in support
of Indian independence. Because of his absences
from home and spiritual pursuits, this marriage,
though affectionate, produced no children. Mrin-
alini died at the age of 32, just before her planned
move to the Pondicherry ASHRAM Aurobindo had
established.
In 1903 in Kashmir an important spiritual
event took place in Aurobindo’s life. Through
the aid of a teacher, Bhaskar Lele, he realized
the non-dual nature of the “characterless” divineSri Aurobindo (1872–1950), founder of Integral Yoga
(Courtesy Aurobindo Archives, Pondicherry)K 52 Aum