gives fluid batters some solidity by chilling
them, and then shapes them by extruding them
through a pastry pipe or setting them in
molds.
A coarser but more fragile backbone can
be created by replacing some or all of the
flour with ground nuts, as in classic
macaroons made only with egg whites, sugar,
and almonds.
Sugar Sugar makes several contributions to
cookie structure and texture. When creamed
with the fat, or beaten with egg, it introduces
air bubbles into the mix and lightens the
texture. It competes with the flour starch for
water, and raises the starch gelation
temperature nearly to the boiling point: so it
adds hardness and crispness. A large
proportion of pure table sugar, sucrose,
contributes to hardness in another way. The
proportion of sugar in some cookie doughs is
so high that only about half the sugar