108; and Hijra, 50–52; Muhammad’s
early days in, 32–49; Muhammad’s
march on, 105–6; Muhammad’s pil-
grimages to, 104–6, 112; Muhammad’s
withdrawal from, 48–49; neutrality of,
26; and Ottoman Empire, 240; during
pilgrimage season, 23; poverty in,
33–34, 40–41; praying in direction of,
146; pre-Islamic, 23–49; and Quranic
exegesis, 160–61; Quraysh domination
in, 24–32; and Quraysh-Muhammad
conflict, 81–92; religio-economic sys-
tem in, 26–32, 33, 34, 44, 46–47, 60,
82–92; “reverse migration” from Me-
dina to, 88–89; Sharif of, 240, 243, 244;
and Shi‘atu Ali, 174; and successors to
Muhammad, 112, 129, 130, 134; tolls
for entering, 25–26; and trade, 26–28,
83; and Uthman revolt, 129; and Wah-
habism, 243, 244; and Yazid rebellion,
- See also pilgrimages
Medina: archeological evidence in, 97; birth
of Muslim community in, 52–53;
defense of, 91–92; description of, 51;
economy of, 54; first mosque at, 52;
Hanifism in, 14; Husayn as Caliph in,
176; as Islamic archetype, 52–53, 257,
258, 263, 264; and Islamic Reforma-
tion, 257, 258, 263, 264; Jews in,
56–57, 89–94, 96–97, 102; and Malike
School, 165; Muhammad’s emigration
to, 48–49, 50–52; Muhammad’s return
to, after defeat of Quraysh, 108; pagan-
ism in, 56–57, 97; pilgrimages to, 82; in
pre-Islamic Arabia, 14, 53–66; and
Quranic exegesis, 161; and Quraysh-
Muhammad conflict, 75–81, 91–92;
and “reverse migration” from Medina
to Mecca, 88–89; and Riddah Wars,
119; as sanctuary city, 82; and Shi‘atu
Ali, 174; as soul of Islam, 108; and
spread of Islam, 52–53; and successors
to Muhammad, 134; as trading center,
82; tribal conflict in, 55; Ummah at,
57; and Wahhabism, 243, 244; wealth
of, 122; Yathrib renamed, 52, 74, 88;
and Yazid-Husayn conflict, 176–77;
and Yazid rebellion, 178. See also Con-
stitution of Medina
meditation, 202, 217
Menocal, Maria, 95
Mernissi, Fatima, 68
Mevlevi Order, 217
militancy, Islamic: Medina as archetype for,
52–53
Index 303
Mina: three pillars of, 149
Mir, Mustansir, 84
miracles, 156–57
Modarressi, Hossein, 185
Modernism: and colonialism, 225–28; and
democracy, 258; in Egypt, 229–32; in
India, 225–28; Medina as archetype
for, 52–53; in Saudi Arabia, 240–48.
See also Pan-Arabism; Pan-Islamism;
Salafiyyah movement; specific person
Momen, Moojan, 116
monasticism, 199, 200
monism, 214
Monophysites, 11
monotheism, 5, 10, 12–13, 16, 17, 40, 43,
46, 266
morality: and colonialism, 225; and commu-
nal character of Islam, 264; and
democracy, 261, 264, 265; and early
verses revealed by Muhammad, 41; and
Hanifism, 15; and Islam as nascent reli-
gion, 59; and Islamic Reformation,
257–58, 261, 264; of Muhammad, 5;
and pre-Islamic warfare, 83, 84; and
Shariah, 163; and tribal ethics, 30; of
Wahhabism, 246
Morocco, 217, 255, 257, 260
Moses, 9, 17, 34, 64, 102, 109, 117, 156,
179, 182
mosque: first, 52; and Five Pillars, 146;
Umar’s destruction of Damascus, 94
Mount Arafat, 149
Mount Hira: Muhammad’s Revelation on,
34–39
Mu‘awiyah, 131, 132, 134–35, 136, 142,
173–75, 176
Mughal Empire, 218, 222, 224
Muhajirun. See Companions
Muhammad (Aisha’s brother), 130
Muhammad: appearance of, 32; assassination
attempts on, 90, 155; authority of,
55–56, 57–58; birth of, 18–19; character
and personality of, 32, 33, 38; childhood
and youth of, 17–18, 19–21, 32; clan of,
24; death of, 66, 108–9, 111; early days
in Mecca of, 32–43; early followers of,
41–42; final sermon of, 149; God’s rela-
tionship with, 216; as Hakam, 32,
55–57; and Hanifism, 15; health of,
107–9; historical information about,
21–22, 27–28; and human rights,
263–64; imitators of, 110; impact on
Mecca of, 5; Jesus compared with,
21, 98, 216; Karbala revealed to, 179;
as Keeper of the Keys, 108;
