conflict in the Third World, ranging from secession to equal rights, greater
political participation, an end to economic and social discrimination, and
the protection of cultural traditions. Democratization in multi-ethnic soci-
eties is extremely problematic (Horowitz, 1994; Gurr and Harff, 1994).
The problem of national integration occurred when new states came into
existence and primary political loyalties were focused on groups other than
the national community. So public authorities had difficulty in sustaining a
sense of legitimacy because the nation, its political institutions and its meth-
ods of government did not enjoy the same level of legitimacy as more
primary points of attachment (Saravanamuttu, 1989, p. 2).
In addition, ethnic conflict has had its origins in historic antagonisms (for
example, Sinhalese and Tamils in Sri Lanka), competition for scarce resources
(especially employment), the disproportionate benefits from modernization
enjoyed by some ethnic groups (for example, the Ibo in Nigeria), and exclusive
ethnic occupational specialization and ‘division of labour’. Colonial discrimi-
nation left legacies of ethnic hierarchies and disparities in material well-being
(such as the Baganda in Uganda). Fears of political domination have been
exacerbated by the exclusive right to rule claimed by some ethnic groups (such
as the Pushtuns of Afghanistan) and by the designation of a single language as
‘official’ (as with Malay in Malaysia) (Horowitz, 1985, pp. 95 ff ).
Whether ethnic diversity threatens political stability depends very much on
how it is structured and managed. The type and extent of ethnic conflict is
determined by the level of group cohesion (affected by the strength of griev-
ance and the group’s regional concentration), the strategies and tactics of lead-
ers (particularly the use of violence), the type of political system confronted
(its level of democracy), and external encouragement (Gurr and Harff, 1994,
pp. 84–7). Ethnicity is reduced in significance when there are cross-cutting
identities rather than a correspondence between ethnic, religious, regional and
linguistic cleavages. Instability is also more likely where there are a few large
ethnic groups whose conflicts dominate politics, and less likely when there is
a multiplicity of small ethnic groups – compare Nigeria and Tanzania in this
regard. The cultural pluralism which has been cited as almost a hallmark of
political underdevelopment has often meant a lack of consensus about politi-
cal values. There is then what is often regarded as a crisis of political culture.
The political culture
This leads to a consideration of a group of influences on stability that are
explicitly political. One explanation of instability has been in terms of the
232 Understanding Third World Politics