there is far too large a body of literature to do justice to here. Only the most
influential thinkers can be dealt with and even then the concentration will be
on what they had to say about the effects of imperialism on colonized soci-
eties. This provides a more relevant foundation for subsequent discussion of
theories of political change than would the long-standing debates about the
causes of imperialism, its relationship to the development of mercantilism and
capitalism, and its influence as a major cause of war between the European
powers (Cohen, 1973, ch. 2; Kiernan, 1974, p. 24; Larrain, 1989, pp. 62–77).
Secondly, the different forms taken by colonial penetration and the forces
shaping them will be identified. Finally, a brief look will be given at the
debate within the social sciences on the relationship between imperialism
and capitalism. The question is whether imperialism was a progressive force
for colonies because it introduced capitalism, regarded as significant either
because it is seen as a necessary stage of historical development, or because
it is seen as an advanced and civilized way of organizing an economy and
society. This section acts as a prelude to later examination of the controversy
over the significance of political independence to former colonies.
Explanations of imperialism
Pre-capitalist imperialism of the mercantilist period of European economic
development, such as Spanish and Portuguese conquest in South America,
involved the exaction of tribute and the control of trade routes to open up new
markets. As capitalism developed, the nations of Western Europe engaged in
territorial expansion and domination to acquire precious metals, luxury
goods and slaves, and to interfere in local production so that exploitation
could be intensified. From the mid-seventeenth to the late eighteenth cen-
turies the object of imperialism was to secure the raw materials and food
needed in the period of rapid growth in manufacturing which preceded the
Industrial Revolution, and to provide markets for those manufactures.
During the nineteenth century the transition from an imperialism based on
merchant capital to one based on industrial capital was completed. Warfare
between competing European nations for the control of colonies was largely
replaced by wars of conquest as new colonies were acquired. Between 1800
and 1878 the European nations extended their control from 35 per cent of the
globe’s land surface to 67 per cent. However, the rate of seizure between
1878 and 1914 was three times greater, represented most notably by the
scramble for Africa and giving the imperial powers control over 85 per cent
of the globe. This greater involvement in the world economy was primarily
24 Understanding Third World Politics