Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches

WHAT ARE THE MAJOR TYPES OF SOCIAL RESEARCH?

orcommissioned research. Most commissioned
studies put limitations on researcher autonomy.
Someone else provides the funds, and specifies the
scope of the research question and the dissemina-
tion of findings. Other “strings” may include re-
striction to examine certain issues but not others.
Researchers may face strict limits on the time to
complete a study. Alternatively, they may be told
which research techniques to use or which people
to contact in the study.

Expanded Set of Basic and Applied Research
Types. We can now combine the form of knowl-
edge, audience, and commissioned versus au-
tonomous research to create an expanded set of
basic and applied research and researcher roles (see
Table 2). Basic research for the scientific commu-
nity can produce reflexive or instrumental knowl-
edge—critical and professional research,
respectively.^13 A large private foundation or gov-
ernment agency might commission a researcher to
conduct basic research. This is basic contract
research. At times, researchers assume a public
intellectual role and produce reflexive knowledge
to advance general discussion and public debate. At
other times, they produce instrumental knowledge,
sometimes from a commissioned or autonomous
study. The knowledge might be dedicated to a
specific policy and contribute to a policy debate.

A researcher who designs reflexive research for

participants is in a public educator role. When the

knowledge is instrumental, the researcher may act

as a consultant to the participants or be a participa-

tory researcher who is equal to the participants. On

some occasions, generalist and targeted practition-

ers create and apply reflexive knowledge in debates

and deliberations over issues or decision options.

More often practitioners focus on instrumental

knowledge. Sometimes a generalist practitioner cre-

ates and uses knowledge as a contributor to open,

democratic decisions. At other times, a practitioner

narrowly focuses on a particular targeted issue that

has little application or distribution of findings.^14

An outside group or employer could commission a

study, or a researcher could create it autonomously.

PURPOSE OF RESEARCH

We conduct studies for many reasons: my boss told

me to; it was a class assignment; I was curious; my

roommate thought it would be a good idea. There

TABLE 2 Expanded Set of Basic and Applied Research Types

FORM OF KNOWLEDGE

AUDIENCE REFLEXIVE INSTRUMENTAL INSTRUMENTAL

Autonomous Commissioned Autonomous

Basic Research Type

Scientific community Basic critical Basic contract Basic professional

Applied Research Types

General public Public intellectual Dedicated policy Democratic policy

Participants Public educator Consultant Participatory researcher

Generalist practitioner Democratic deliberation Democratic contract Democratic applied research

Narrow practitioner Dedicated deliberation Dedicated contract Dedicated applied research

Commissioned research Research funded and

conducted at the behest of someone other than the

researcher; the person conducting the study often has

limited control over the research question, methods of

a study, and presentation of results.