Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches

WRITING THE RESEARCH REPORT AND THE POLITICS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH

EXAMPLE BOX 4

Ethics, Politics, and the Misuse of

Survey Research

In a highly unusual move, the leading professional

public opinion organization, the American Associa-

tion for Public Opinion Research (AAPOR), sharply

criticized two organizations that engaged in blatantly

unethical behavior with survey research to advance

narrow political goals. In 1997, the Association found

that Frank Luntz of Luntz Research Corporation “re-

peatedly refused to make public essential factors

about his research.” His surveys showed strong pub-

lic support for a Republican Party proposal called

“Contract with America” in November 1994 that

other researchers did not find. Luntz widely publicized

his findings but refused to disclose basic method-

ological information as is required in ethical surveys.

Three years later, the AAPOR criticized Campaign

Tel, Ltd. for a gross violation of confidentiality. Cam-

paign Tel used a list with names and telephone num-

bers of registered Wisconsin voters and claimed to be

conducting a survey. In fact, the company turned

over detailed information on survey responses and

phone numbers to the Wisconsin Republican Party.

The AAPOR stated that it “strongly condemns any

practice that poses as a survey and elicits information

from a respondent for any purpose other than legit-

imate survey research.” Campaign Tel misrepre-

sented its true nature. By the time the AAPOR had

detected and documented the unethical behavior,

Campaign Tel had ceased to exist.

Source:See AAPOR website, http://www.aapor.org/main1.html.

a technician who produces valid, reliable informa-
tion about how society works that is be used by
others? Or does the researcher belong to an inde-
pendent community of professionals who have a say
in what research questions are asked and how re-
sults are used? On a continuum, one extreme is the
amoral researcher who lacks any concern or control
over research or its use. He or she supplies the
knowledge that others request and nothing more.
This was the stance that many scientists in Nazi Ger-
many took to justify collaborating with Nazi prac-
tices, which were later classified as “crimes against
humanity.” He or she “just follows orders” and “just
does the job” but asks “no questions.” At the other
extreme are researchers who have total control over
research and its use.
The approaches to social science are associated
with different models of relevance as are different
political views.^43 Positivists tend to follow the “di-
rect and positive effects” or “special constituency,
the government” model. The interpretive researcher
follows the “no net effects” or the “uncoopted”
model. Critical social scientists follow the “special
constituency, the proletariat” or “special con-
stituency, the uncoopted” models.
Specific researchers or research projects cross
between models. For example, Whyte (1986) de-
scribed research on employee ownership as crossing
between three constituencies (the proletariat, the un-
coopted, and the government) and as having direct
and positive effects.
Since Rule developed models of relevance, a
new model has appeared with a large increase in the
number and size of nongovernmental private think
tanksin the United States. This sixth model is
special constituency, wealthy individuals, and cor-
porations.It states that social research can reflect a
researcher’s political values and advance the polit-
ical goals of wealthy groups who seek to maintain
or expand their power. The think tanks are research
and public organizations funded by wealthy indi-

viduals, corporations, and political groups. For

example, the Manhattan Institute, Cato Institute,

Heritage Foundation, and American Enterprise

Institute grew dramatically from the early 1980s

to the 1990s. They have a particular political-

ideological viewpoint and use social research or

pseudoscience to advance their agenda. Think tanks

pay researchers, sponsor research reports, and draw

public attention to results supporting their views

(see Example Box 4, Ethics, Politics, and the Mis-

use of Survey Research).

Think tank studies vary in quality. Their stud-

ies often lack peer review and are short on solid

Think tank An organization (usually nonprofit, non-

governmental) in which one or more researchers,

writers, journalists, and others develop, refine, elabo-

rate on, and publicize ideas about policy issues.