THEORY AND RESEARCHEXAMPLE BOX 5
Kalmijn’s Levels of Theory in “Shifting Boundaries”large idea of marital instability, and age of marriage
might be linked to the person’s stage in the life cycle
and the social roles she or he learns. Maintaining a
marital relationship may be placed in a context of
other social forces (e.g., gender ideologies, societal
disapproval or acceptance, laws affecting divorce,
friendship or kinship groups, religious pressures).
A study may elaborate and test specific parts of the
middle-range theory, and accumulating empirical
support for many parts of the theory over time helps
the theory to advance as an explanation.
Theoretical frameworks(also called theoreti-
cal systemsor paradigms) are at the widest range
and the opposite extreme from empirical general-
izations. A theoretical framework is more than a for-
mal or substantive theory and includes many
specific formal and substantive theories that may
share basic assumptions and general concepts in
common. Sociology has several major frame-
works.^8 They are orientations or sweeping ways to
see and think about the social world. They provide
assumptions, concepts, and forms of explanation.
For example, each framework may have its own
theory of the family, of crime, or of social change.
Some frameworks (e.g., symbolic interactionism)
are more oriented toward the micro level of analy-
sis whereas others (e.g., conflict) are stronger at the
macro level. Specific studies rarely test or contrast
entire frameworks. More often, studies seek evi-
dence for one part of a theory within one framework
(e.g., one proposition from a conflict theory of
crime). Example Box 5, Kalmijn’s Levels of The-
ory, illustrates the ranges of theory with Kalmijn’s
study of changing marriage partner selection. Each
framework is associated with an overall approach
to doing research. Expansion Box 2, Major Theo-
retical Frameworks, briefly describes the key con-
cepts of assumption of the four major theoretical
frameworks of sociology.Theoretical framework A very general theoretical
system with assumptions, concepts, and specific social
theories.Theoretical framework.Structural functionalism holds
that the processes of industrialization and urbani-
zation change human society from a traditional to
a modern form. In this process of modernization,
social institutions and practices evolve. This evolution
includes those that fill the social system’s basic needs,
socialize people to cultural values, and regulate social
behavior. Institutions that filled needs and main-
tained the social system in a traditional society are
superseded by modern ones.
Formal theory.Secularization theory says that dur-
ing modernization, people shift away from a reliance
on traditional religious beliefs and local community
ties. In traditional society, institutions that conferred
ascribed social status (family, church, and community)
also controlled socialization and regulated social life.
In modern society, they are superseded by secular
institutions (e.g., education, government, and media)
that confer achievement-oriented status.Middle-range substantive theory.A theory of
intermarriage patterns notes that young adults in
modern society spend less time in small, local set-
tings where family, religion, and community all have
a strong influence. Instead, young adults spend
increasing amounts of time in school settings. In
these settings, especially in college, young adults
have opportunities to meet other unmarried people.
In modern society, education has become a major
socialization agent. It affects future earnings, moral
beliefs and values, and leisure interests. Thus, young
adults select marriage partners less on the basis of
shared religious or local ties and more on the basis
of common educational levels.
Empirical generalization.Americans once mar-
ried others with similar religious beliefs and affilia-
tion. This practice is being replaced by marriage to
others with similar levels of education.