affective climate and the quality of classroom interactions. She observed
an increase in the level of cognitive functioning and academic achieve-
ment and a decrease in the number of behavior problems.
Using silence or wait time before responding to or asking a question
enhances message delivery and acceptance by allowing the speaker and
the listeners to breathe while the message is delivered. Breathing is essen-
tial for supporting cognition—not to mention life in general! The impor-
tance of breathing can best be understood by recognizing that the human
brain accounts for approximately 3 percent of body mass and can consume
up to 37 percent of the oxygen taken in. When we hold our breath, the
carbon dioxide levels in the blood increase. The body reacts to the carbon
dioxide increase in much the same way that it responds to threat by releas-
ing hormones that support the fight-or-flight response. In addition, the
human brain is hardwired to detect threat, which results in decreasing
blood flow to the frontal lobes and increasing flow to the brain stem. When
we hold our breath or perceive a threat, thinking is negatively affected
(Garmston & Wellman, 2008). Action, not thought, becomes the priority.
Pausing in appropriate places during the delivery of content supports group
breathing and establishes a low-threat environment, thus allowing both
presenter and audience to think more clearly and effectively (Zoller, 2005).
Additional research, including that of Goleman (2006) and Kendon
(1990), has shown many positive changes in classrooms where the teacher
uses increased wait time:
•The length of student responses increases 300 to 700 percent.
•The number of unsolicited but appropriate student responses
increases.
- The number of failures to respond decreases.
•Student confidence increases, and there are fewer inflected
responses.
•Speculative responses increase.
•Student-to-student interaction increases. Teacher-centered show-
and-tell decreases.
•Teacher questions change in number and kind: the number of
divergent questions increases, and teachers ask higher-level questions (as
described by Bloom’s Taxonomy[1956]).
Creating “Thought-Full” Environments 107