This is fairly obvious in cases where the patient's predominant symptoms are hallucinations, delusions, "word-
salads," neologisms, time-space disorientations, etc. But it is equally true in cases where the patient's symptoms are
less obviously cognitive or psycho-epistemological in origin—such as pathological anxiety, depression,
hypochondriasis, conversion reactions, sado-masochism, etc. (Chapter Nine).
Neurotic and psychotic manifestations, such as inappropriate emotional responses or aberrant behavior, are the
symptoms and consequences of a mind's malfunctioning. But the root problem is always: the mind's alienation from
reality (in some form, to a greater or lesser extent).
Consider, for example, a case of pathological depression. A secretary is asked by her employer to make certain that
she finishes some office reports by the end of the day; she hears this request as a declaration of her incompetence
and worthlessness—and she collapses in acute depression. It is misleading to say that she suffers from "an
emotional disorder." She suffers from a psycho-epistemological disorder. Her problem lies in the mental processes
by which she interprets the things she perceives and hears. Her problem lies in the mental processes generating her
emotions.
Once such disturbed emotions are generated, they tend to have a negative effect on the person's thinking—which
then leads to further disturbed emotions, and so on. This is one of the ways in which harmful psycho-
epistemological policies are self-reinforcing and self-perpetuating. But disturbed emotions do not create the initial
problem; the initial problem creates the disturbed emotions.
Emotions reflect evaluations and interpretations; inappropriate or disturbed emotions proceed from inappropriate or
disturbed judgments; these proceed from inadequate or disturbed thinking.
The same principle applies to behavior. If a man is dishonest, parasitical and exploitative in his human
relationships, it is not his behavior that constitutes his mental illness, but the psycho-epistemological policies
behind his behavior.
Irrational beliefs, emotions, and actions are the symptoms by which we detect the presence of mental illness. They
are aids to diagnosis. But they must not be confused with their psychological