College Physics

acceleration:

carrier particle:

dynamics:

external force:

force field:

force:

free-body diagram:

free-fall:

friction:

inertia:

inertial frame of reference:

law of inertia:

mass:

Einstein predicted the existence of these waves as part of his general theory of relativity. Gravitational waves are created during the collision of
massive stars, in black holes, or in supernova explosions—like shock waves. These gravitational waves will travel through space from such sites
much like a pebble dropped into a pond sends out ripples—except these waves move at the speed of light. A detector apparatus has been built in the
U.S., consisting of two large installations nearly 3000 km apart—one in Washington state and one in Louisiana! The facility is called the Laser
Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO). Each installation is designed to use optical lasers to examine any slight shift in the relative
positions of two masses due to the effect of gravity waves. The two sites allow simultaneous measurements of these small effects to be separated
from other natural phenomena, such as earthquakes. Initial operation of the detectors began in 2002, and work is proceeding on increasing their
sensitivity. Similar installations have been built in Italy (VIRGO), Germany (GEO600), and Japan (TAMA300) to provide a worldwide network of
gravitational wave detectors.

International collaboration in this area is moving into space with the joint EU/US project LISA (Laser Interferometer Space Antenna). Earthquakes and
other Earthly noises will be no problem for these monitoring spacecraft. LISA will complement LIGO by looking at much more massive black holes
through the observation of gravitational-wave sources emitting much larger wavelengths. Three satellites will be placed in space above Earth in an
equilateral triangle (with 5,000,000-km sides) (Figure 4.29). The system will measure the relative positions of each satellite to detect passing
gravitational waves. Accuracy to within 10% of the size of an atom will be needed to detect any waves. The launch of this project might be as early as
2018.

“I’m sure LIGO will tell us something about the universe that we didn’t know before. The history of science tells us that any time you go where you
haven’t been before, you usually find something that really shakes the scientific paradigms of the day. Whether gravitational wave astrophysics will do
that, only time will tell.”—David Reitze, LIGO Input Optics Manager, University of Florida

Figure 4.29Space-based future experiments for the measurement of gravitational waves. Shown here is a drawing of LISA’s orbit. Each satellite of LISA will consist of a laser
source and a mass. The lasers will transmit a signal to measure the distance between each satellite’s test mass. The relative motion of these masses will provide information
about passing gravitational waves. (credit: NASA)

The ideas presented in this section are but a glimpse into topics of modern physics that will be covered in much greater depth in later chapters.

Glossary

the rate at which an object’s velocity changes over a period of time

a fundamental particle of nature that is surrounded by a characteristic force field; photons are carrier particles of the

electromagnetic force

the study of how forces affect the motion of objects and systems

a force acting on an object or system that originates outside of the object or system

a region in which a test particle will experience a force

a push or pull on an object with a specific magnitude and direction; can be represented by vectors; can be expressed as a multiple of a

standard force

a sketch showing all of the external forces acting on an object or system; the system is represented by a dot, and the forces

are represented by vectors extending outward from the dot

a situation in which the only force acting on an object is the force due to gravity

a force past each other of objects that are touching; examples include rough surfaces and air resistance

the tendency of an object to remain at rest or remain in motion

a coordinate system that is not accelerating; all forces acting in an inertial frame of reference are real forces, as

opposed to fictitious forces that are observed due to an accelerating frame of reference

see Newton’s first law of motion

the quantity of matter in a substance; measured in kilograms

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