Chapter 2 Financial Markets and Institutions 29any type of! nancial institution. The business delivers its securities to savers,
who, in turn, give the! rm the money it needs. This procedure is used mainly
by small! rms, and relatively little capital is raised by direct transfers.- As shown in the middle section, transfers may also go through an investment
bank (iBank) such as Merrill Lynch or Citigroup, which underwrites the issue.
An underwriter serves as a middleman and facilitates the issuance of securi-
ties. The company sells its stocks or bonds to the investment bank, which then
sells these same securities to savers. The businesses’ securities and the savers’
money merely “pass through” the investment bank. However, because the
investment bank buys and holds the securities for a period of time, it is taking
a risk—it may not be able to resell the securities to savers for as much as it
paid. Because new securities are involved and the corporation receives the
proceeds of the sale, this transaction is called a primary market transaction. - Transfers can also be made through a! nancial intermediary such as a bank, an
insurance company, or a mutual fund. Here the intermediary obtains funds
from savers in exchange for its securities. The intermediary uses this money to
buy and hold businesses’ securities, while the savers hold the intermediary’s
securities. For example, a saver deposits dollars in a bank, receiving a certi! -
cate of deposit; then the bank lends the money to a business in the form of a
mortgage loan. Thus, intermediaries literally create new forms of capital—in
this case, certi! cates of deposit, which are safer and more liquid than mort-
gages and thus are better for most savers to hold. The existence of intermediar-
ies greatly increases the ef! ciency of money and capital markets.
Often the entity needing capital is a business (and speci! cally a corporation);
but it is easy to visualize the demander of capital being a home purchaser, a small
business, or a government unit. For example, if your uncle lends you money to
help you fund a new business, a direct transfer of funds will occur. Alternatively,
if you borrow money to purchase a home, you will probably raise the funds
through a! nancial intermediary such as your local commercial bank or mortgage
banker. That banker could sell your mortgage to an investment bank, which then
might use it as collateral for a bond that is bought by a pension fund.
In a global context, economic development is highly correlated with the level
and ef! ciency of! nancial markets and institutions.^1 It is dif! cult, if not impossible,
for an economy to reach its full potential if it doesn’t have access to a well- functioning
! nancial system. In a well-developed economy like that of the United States, an
extensive set of markets and institutions has evolved over time to facilitate the ef! -
cient allocation of capital. To raise capital ef! ciently, managers must understand
how these markets and institutions work; and individuals need to know how the
markets and institutions work to get high rates of returns on their savings.
SELF^ TEST Name three ways capital is transferred between savers and borrowers.
Why are e! cient capital markets necessary for economic growth?(^1) For a detailed review of the evidence linking! nancial development to economic growth, see Ross Levine,
“Finance and Growth: Theory and Evidence,” NBER Working Paper No. 10766, September 2004.