Microbiology and Immunology

Hazen, Elizabeth WORLD OF MICROBIOLOGY AND IMMUNOLOGY

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The global scope of the HACCP program reflects the

susceptibility of, for example, a food to contamination from

different microorganisms at different stages of the process-

ing pathway. The altered storage conditions, physical state

and chemistry of the food, and shipping conditions can select

for the growth of different microbes. The absence of

microbes as a food enters a plant is no guarantee that the

food will remain uncontaminated. The monitoring of points

along the production pathway that are deemed critical and

susceptible to contamination can reveal problems and spur

remediation of the problems.

The concept of HACCP arose in 1959 at the Pillsbury

Company. At that time, the company was contracted to pro-

vide food products for the United States manned space pro-

gram. A system of stringent quality control was needed,

because astronauts would not have access to medical attention

in the event of the development of a food poisoning or intoxi-

cation event in space. The concept of a controlled series of

checks was born. In 1971, at the United States Conference on

Food Protection, the principles of HACCP were formally

described. The principles and procedures of a HACCP pro-

gram have since been formalized by the National Advisory

Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods.

Then, as now, there are three principles to the program.

First is the identification of hazards found all the way from the

field to the marketplace, and the determination of the urgency

of each hazard in terms of remedy. Second is the formulation

of steps to control or prevent the occurrence of those hazards

that warrant remediation. Last is the establishment of a system

to monitor the points in the manufacturing process that have

been deemed either critical to product quality or a point at

which contamination could occur.

A critical part of a HACCP program is the writing of

what are known as standard operating procedures (or SOPs).

A SOP documents exactly how a test or monitoring will be

conducted, how often it will be conducted, and both how—

and to whom—the results of the test or monitoring will be

reported. This ensures that the food or other material that is

being guarded from contamination will be treated the same

way. In this way, if a problem occurs, there is a standard in

place, which allows for a frame of reference in which to prop-

erly evaluate the problem.

A properly operating HACCP program is not, of course,

a guarantee that no problems will occur. However, the chances

of microbial contamination will be reduced, because problems

will be noted as they develop (for example, the need to clean

a piece of equipment or the accumulation of stagnant water in

a pipeline), rather than being confronted by a contamination

problem with no warning. Knowledge of the types of contam-

ination problems that can arise can help pinpoint the source of

a contamination, and so can minimize the time that a produc-

tion line is shut down.

An important aspect of a HACCP program is that all

remediative procedures that are contemplated must be capable

of being routinely performed. If a solution is not easily done,

the control step is meaningless. An adjunct to a successful

HACCP is the industrial concept of Good Manufacturing

Practices (abbreviated GMP). Essentially GMP is a series of

quality control measures designed to ensure that a process pro-

ceeds as planned.

Another important aspect of a HACCP program is the

verification that the program is operating properly. This can

involve the use of known strains of bacteriato verify that the

examination techniques being used to monitor a process do

indeed detect the bacteria. Such tests should be performed reg-

ularly (daily, weekly, monthly) and the results should be doc-

umented.

HACCP programs involving microorganisms typically

are revised as more becomes known about the microbe of inter-

est. As further information is learned of, for example, the

microbe’s habitat, growth conditions, and environmental niches,

more monitoring or the use of additional examination tech-

niques may need to be incorporated into the HACCP program.

See alsoDisinfection and disinfectants; Food safety

HHazen, Elizabeth AZEN, ELIZABETH(1885-1975)

American microbiologist

Elizabeth Hazen, through a long-distance collaboration with

her colleague Rachel Brown, developed the first non-toxic

drug treatment for fungal infections in humans.

Hazen was born in Rich, Mississippi, on August 24,

1885, and raised by relatives in Lula, Mississippi, after the

death of her parents. Hazen attended the public schools of

Coahoma County, Mississippi, and earned a B.S. from the

State College for Women, now Mississippi University for

Women. She began teaching high school science and contin-

ued her own education during summers at the University of

Tennessee and University of Virginia.

In 1916, Hazen began studying bacteriology at

Columbia University, where she earned an M.A. the following

year. World War I provided some opportunities for women

scientists, and Hazen served in the Army diagnostic laborato-

ries and subsequently in the facilities of a West Virginia hos-

pital. Following the war, she returned to Columbia University

to pursue a doctorate in microbiology, which she earned in

1927 at age 42.

After a four-year stint at Columbia University as an

instructor, Hazen joined the Division of Laboratories and

Research of the New York State Department of Health. She

was assigned to special problems of bacterial diagnosis and

spent the next few years researching bacterial diseases. She

investigated an outbreak of anthrax, tracing it to a brush fac-

tory in Westchester County. Hazen discovered unknown

sources of tularemiain New York and was the first to identify

imported canned seafood that had spoiled as the cause of type

E toxin deaths.

Her discoveries led Hazen to try to better understand

mycotic (fungal) diseases. In 1944, she was given the respon-

sibility of investigating such diseases, and she acquired cul-

tures of fungi from local laboratories and specialized

collections. Although Hazen was learning more about mycotic

diseases, fungal infections continued to spread in epidemic

proportions among school children in New York City. In addi-

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