The Doctrine of Discovery 199THE WHIP OF COLONIALISM
From the mid-fifteenth century to the mid-twentieth century, most
of the non-European world was colonized under the Doctrine of
Discovery, one of the first principles of international law Christian
European monarchies promulgated to legitimize investigating, map
ping, and claiming lands belonging to peoples outside Europe. It
originated in a papal bull issued in 1455 that permitted the Portu
guese monarchy to seize West Africa. Following Columbus's infa
mous exploratory voyage in 1492, sponsored by the king and queen
of the infant Spanish state, another papal bull extended similar
permission to Spain. Disputes between the Portuguese and Spanish
monarchies led to the papal-initiated Treaty of Tordesillas (1494),
which, besides dividing the globe equally between the two Iberian
empires, clarified that only non-Christian lands fell under the dis
covery doctrine. 3 This doctrine on which all European states relied
thus originated with the arbitrary and unilateral establishment of
the Iberian monarchies' exclusive rights under Christian canon law
to colonize foreign peoples, and this right was later seized by other
European monarchical colonizing projects. The French Republic
used this legalistic instrument for its nineteenth-and twentieth
century settler colonialist projects, as did the newly independent
United States when it continued the colonization of North America
begun by the British.
In 1792, not long after the US founding, Secretary of State
Thomas Jefferson claimed that the Doctrine of Discovery developed
by European states was international law applicable to the new US
government as well. In 182 3 the US Supreme Court issued its deci
sion in Johnson v. Mcintosh. Writing for the majority, Chief Justice
John Marshall held that the Doctrine of Discovery had been an es
tablished principle of European law and of English law in effect
in Britain's North American colonies and was also the law of the
United States. The Court defined the exclusive property rights that
a European country acquired by dint of discovery: "Discovery gave
title to the government, by whose subjects, or by whose authority,
it was made, against all other European governments, which title