functional characteristics of a brand, also consume brands due to the symbolic
benefits they can provide.
As a result, the symbolic nature of brands can be understood at the same level as
the utilitarian nature of brands, which tends to be captured by models that are
generalizable across product categories (e.g., multi-attribute model; Fishbein
and Ajzen 1975). Therefore, like the multi-attribute model, which sheds insight
into when and why consumers buy brands for utilitarian purposes, a cross-
category framework and scale can provide theoretical insights into when and
why consumers buy brands for self-expressive purposes.
(Aaker 1997, p. 348)Furthermore, it is assumed that if these symbolic benefits are expressed by
imbuing the brand with a human-like character, then the brand will be
strengthened significantly. A strong and attractive brand personality can, if well
executed, serve as an important source of differentiation and brand power. Brand
personality is an efficient driver of emotional bonding between brand and
consumer because consumers bond with and act on brands with a brand person-
ality to a greater extent than they do with brands that do not have a personality. The
reason is that consumers ‘see’ themselves in the personality of the brand and can
hence use the brand in their construction of identity and self. The more consumers
perceive the brand personality as a reflection of own personality, the stronger the
brand personality and brand. The function of a brand personality is, however, not
limited to consumers’ personal inward use as a source of construction of self.
Brands with an attractive brand personality are also chosen and consumed due to
their outward symbolic signalling value. The use of brand personality as a
symbolic signal or source for self construction can be based on the brand person-
ality itself or the personality of the ideal/actual users of a brand. The personality
approach hence places the personality of the brand and the personality of its
stereotypical or ideal user at the heart of brand management.
The basic assumptions regarding the brand in the personality approach are ones of
a reciprocal and human-like exchange between brand and consumer. As depicted in
figure 7.1, brands are endowed with human-like personalities, which are activated in
a continuous reciprocal, dialogue-based exchange between brand and consumer.
In the personality approach, the emotional bond between the brand and the
consumer is hence strengthened significantly if the brand has an attractive and
relevant brand personality. For consumers, brands with a brand personality are
hence appealing because they serve as a mean of construction of and expression of
self. For companies brand personality can serve as an important source of differen-
tiation, positioning, and a tool to build emotional bonds with consumers.
The personality perspective
The personality approach draws on theories and insights from, respectively, the
fields of human psychology and consumer behaviour research. From human
118 Seven brand approaches