view, understanding culture is about identifying and categorizing cultural stereo-
types. From a symbolic and interpretive approach, culture is embedded in and
expressed through people’s actions and language. Finally, in the constructivist
view of culture, the strength of organizational culture is defined by its ability to
adapt to changes in the environment. In this view the strength of an organizational
culture is found in its ability to learn, change and adapt to market demands. This
evolution is reflected in the recent multi-paradigm methods of studying organiza-
tional culture. One of the key frameworks for the study of organizational culture
offers a three-perspective approach. The three perspectives reflect the inherent
ambiguity and forces of organizational culture.
The integrationperspective represents the functionalist perspective and the
forces in the organization oriented towards consensus and consistency. This
66 Seven brand approaches
Table 5.3Three perspectives on organizational culture
Characteristics Integration Differentiation Fragmentation
Level of consensus Organization-wide Subcultural Consensus appears
consensus consensus only temporarily in
clusters
Consistency of Consistent Inconsistent Complex
cultural
manifestations
How ambiguity is Ambiguity is Ambiguity between Ambiguity rather
perceived excluded and subcultures is than consensus is
avoided acknowledged assumed
The primary Founder or top Groups of Individuals
creators of culture management subcultures
Where to look for The formal culture The different levels Culture exists at an
organizational dispersed by top of culture are played individual level
culture management out in different
functions or other
groupings: a mix of
formal and informal
culture
How to uncover Join all meetings Get in deep with It is by getting to
organizational and go through all every function/ know the individual
culture internal department or employee that
communication and subculture to learn culture can be
formal activities for how they are diverse uncovered because
employees it is assumed that
there are as many
interpretations of
organizational
culture as there are
individual
employees
SourceAdapted from Martin (2002).