Food Biochemistry and Food Processing (2 edition)

BLBS102-c43 BLBS102-Simpson March 21, 2012 14:30 Trim: 276mm X 219mm Printer Name: Yet to Come

828 Part 8: Food Safety and Food Allergens

histamine poisoning occurs following ingestion of foods that

have large quantities of histamine (Stratton et al. 1991). Scom-

broid fish if not handled properly can accumulate high quantities

of histamine, and such products can pose a health hazard when

consumed. Other fermented foods, such as cheese, wine, dry

sausage, sauerkraut, miso, and soy sauce have also been linked

with biogenic amines poisoning. Histamine and tyramine toxi-

cities have been extensively investigated, and biogenic amines

such asβ-phenylethylamine and tyramine have been linked to

hypertensive crises (Shalaby 1996) and migraines. Other bio-

genic amines such as the HCAs have also been implicated in the

formation of mutagenic or carcinogenic nitrosamines (Stratton

et al. 1991), and the potential health risks of these compounds

are areas of active research to better understand the extent of the

health hazards posed by these compounds in food products.

Health Effects

Biogenic amines participate in various functions connected with

cell growth and metabolism in humans. For example, spermine

and spermidine are involved in free radicals scavenging, cell

membrane channels modulation, and in DNA synthesis. How-

ever, the compounds must be present in minute quantities to

carry out useful functions, because they can be toxic in high

quantities. Other biogenic amines, such as histamine and tyra-

mine, occur naturally in small quantities and participate in al-

lergic and inflammatory responses (Khan et al. 1992, Ha et al.

1998, Schneider et al. 2002). The metabolism of histamine en-

tails absorption by active or passive transport through the lu-

men of the GIT. During this passage, most of the histamine

is broken down by the enzymes diamine oxidase (DAO) and

histamine-N-methyltransferase (HNMT) into useful intermedi-

ates like imidazoleacetic acid andN-methyl histamine. These

molecules together with the residual histamine are transported

in the blood to the liver where they are degraded further. In the

body, histamine binds to receptors to initiate various responses,

including smooth muscle contraction, vasodilation, alteration

of blood pressure, and enhancing vascular permeability. Never-

theless, high levels of histamine are potentially toxic and this

intoxication manifests itself within 2 hours after ingestion and

may last up to 16 hours. The symptoms include allergic-type

reactions and gastrointestinal problems in the form of nausea,

cramps, vomiting, and diarrhea (Izquierdo-Pulido et al. 1999,

Attaran and Probst 2002, Maintz and Novak 2007). Histamine

intoxication can also manifest as neurological and cutaneous

disorders in the form of dizziness, flushing, headache, rash, and

itchy eyes. These symptoms are attributed to the release of nitric

oxide from vascular endothelial cells to bring about vasodilation

(Becker et al. 2001, Predy et al. 2003, Borade et al. 2007). In

rare cases, histamine poisoning could cause severe hypotension,

atrial arrhythmias, and loss of consciousness (McInerney et al.

1996).

Various factors may influence histamine toxicity. These in-

clude the use of drugs that inhibit mono- and DAO enzymes,

thereby preventing detoxification of histamine by deamination,

gastrointestinal diseases, alcohol consumption, and bacteria en-

dotoxins. Other biogenic amines like putrescine and cadaverine

can also compete for the same catabolic enzymes as histamine,

thus inhibiting the effectiveness of histamine detoxification and

making the toxic compounds accumulate highly in the plasma.

Although histamine intoxication is the type most commonly

associated with biogenic amines, tyramine also has high toxic-

ity. Ingestion of large quantities of tyramine-containing cheeses,

alcohol, chocolate, and other dairy products can elicit tyramine

intoxication, which manifests as headaches and elevated blood

pressure (Millichap and Yee 2003, Panconesi 2008). Tyramine

is catabolized rapidly in the small intestine by MAOs, and mon-

itoring tyramine ingestion is crucial for individuals on MAO-

inhibiting drugs as their ingestion could bring on hypertensive

crisis (Schmidt and Ferger 2004, Vlieg-Boerstra et al. 2005).

Tyramine poisoning can also cause nausea, vomiting, and even

death from intracranial hemorrhage. There are also emerging

concerns with nitrosamines because they can form carcinogenic

nitrosamines with cadaverine and putrescine by reacting with ni-

trites (used to cure meats) or by serving as precursor molecules

(Bover-Cid et al. 1999).

Certain drugs, for example, ephedrine and related compounds

(amphetamines, phentermine, mazindol, and fenfluramine) can

block the uptake of the biogenic amines NE and serotonin. Thus,

they are able to suppress appetite and food intake, and there is

interest in the development of thermogenic drugs that could act

on appropriate biogenic amines to control obesity safely without

increasing heart rate and blood pressure.

Quality Indicators

Biogenic amines are of interest and use to food scientists/food

technologists due to their use as food quality indicators. Aqueous

solutions of putrescine and cadaverine impart discernible and

objectionable odors at levels of 22 ppm and 190 ppm, respec-

tively. The relative contribution of flavor from biogenic amines

to the overall food quality is not well established; rather, the

main focus has been on their possible use as chemical indica-

tors of food quality. The relationship between the amounts of

particular biogenic amines in a food product and the extent of

food spoilage has been used to estimate a parameter known as

the chemical quality index (CQI) or the biogenic amines index

(BAI) for fish, and this takes into account the concentrations of

putrescine, cadaverine, histamine, spermine, and spermidine in

the fish sample (Mietz and Karmas 1977). On the basis of this,

the CQI is calculated as

Chemical Quality Index [CQI]=

Histamine+Putrescine+

Cadaverine

1 +Spermine+Spermidine

and a CQI value below 1 denotes a good quality product, a value

between 1 and 10 is considered mediocre, while a value≥ 10

connotes spoilage. The CQI or BAI concept was extended further

as the beer BAI by taking into consideration the concentrations

of other biogenic amines, tyramine,β-phenylethylamine, and